117-471: Stallingborough is a village and civil parish in North East Lincolnshire , England. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 1,234. The area around Stallingborough may have been inhabited in prehistoric times; south-east of the village there is evidence of an Iron Age complex of enclosures. Stallingborough is recorded as a manor (as "Stalinburg" or "Stalingeburg") in
234-476: A Cessna 337 A aircraft at about 6,500 feet (2,000 m) close to the village, killing two people. Five people survived the accident. The Varsity, with three crew and three student navigators, landed in a field, with its nose and wing ripped off by a tree. The Cessna broke up in the air following the collision. From the 1970s a large industrial estate was developed in the north of the parish (North Moss Lane Industrial Estate, Kiln Lane Trading Estate), south-west of
351-522: A London borough . (Since the new county was beforehand a mixture of metropolitan boroughs , municipal boroughs and urban districts, no extant parish councils were abolished.) In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 retained rural parishes, but abolished most urban parishes, as well as the urban districts and boroughs which had administered them. Provision was made for smaller urban districts and boroughs to become successor parishes , with
468-511: A Royal Observer Corps monitoring post . In 1953 National Titanium Pigments Ltd (or Laporte Titanium Ltd) established a titanium dioxide manufacturing plant on the site of the former gun battery. The plant became known as the Battery works . Through the latter part of the 20th century the plant was expanded and modernised, later becoming part of SCM Corporation (1983), Hanson plc (1986), Millennium Chemicals (1996), and Cristal (2007). In
585-417: A civil parish is a type of administrative parish used for local government . It is a territorial designation which is the lowest tier of local government. Civil parishes can trace their origin to the ancient system of parishes , which for centuries were the principal unit of secular and religious administration in most of England and Wales. Civil and religious parishes were formally split into two types in
702-617: A thin film , its refractive index and colour make it an excellent reflective optical coating for dielectric mirrors ; it is also used in generating decorative thin films such as found in "mystic fire topaz". Some grades of modified titanium based pigments as used in sparkly paints, plastics, finishes and cosmetics – these are man-made pigments whose particles have two or more layers of various oxides – often titanium dioxide, iron oxide or alumina – in order to have glittering, iridescent and or pearlescent effects similar to crushed mica or guanine -based products. In addition to these effects
819-575: A "safe level for daily intake of the food additive could not be established". In 2022, the UK Food Standards Agency and Food Standards Scotland announced their disagreement with the EFSA ruling, and did not follow the EU in banning titanium dioxide as a food additive. Health Canada similarly reviewed the available evidence in 2022 and decided not to change their position on titanium dioxide as
936-535: A 3,000 feet (910 m) airfield (closed 1919) used by a flight of No. 251 Squadron RAF which carried out marine patrols with Airco DH.6 planes. During the Second World War the site was again used, with 4.7 inch quick-firing gun and a searchlight. There was also an anti aircraft battery at Little London, with positions for four guns. Post war a location near the Little London site was used as
1053-515: A Special Expense, to residents of the unparished area to fund those activities. If the district council does not opt to make a Special Expenses charge, there is an element of double taxation of residents of parished areas, because services provided to residents of the unparished area are funded by council tax paid by residents of the whole district, rather than only by residents of the unparished area. Parish councils comprise volunteer councillors who are elected to serve for four years. Decisions of
1170-576: A boundary coterminous with an existing urban district or borough or, if divided by a new district boundary, as much as was comprised in a single district. There were 300 such successor parishes established. In urban areas that were considered too large to be single parishes, the parishes were simply abolished, and they became unparished areas . The distinction between types of parish was no longer made; whether parishes continued by virtue of being retained rural parishes or were created as successor parishes, they were all simply termed parishes. The 1972 act allowed
1287-477: A city council (though most cities are not parishes but principal areas, or in England specifically metropolitan boroughs or non-metropolitan districts ). The chairman of a town council will have the title "town mayor" and that of a parish council which is a city will usually have the title of mayor . When a city or town has been abolished as a borough, and it is considered desirable to maintain continuity of
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#17327836366741404-462: A city council. According to the Department for Communities and Local Government , in England in 2011 there were 9,946 parishes. Since 1997 around 100 new civil parishes have been created, in some cases by splitting existing civil parishes, but mostly by creating new ones from unparished areas. Parish or town councils have very few statutory duties (things they are required to do by law) but have
1521-559: A city was Hereford , whose city council was merged in 1998 to form a unitary Herefordshire . The area of the city of Hereford remained unparished until 2000 when a parish council was created for the city. As another example, the charter trustees for the City of Bath make up the majority of the councillors on Bath and North East Somerset Council. Civil parishes cover 35% of England's population, with one in Greater London and few in
1638-481: A civil parish which has no parish council, the parish meeting may levy a council tax precept for expenditure relating to specific functions, powers and rights which have been conferred on it by legislation. In places where there is no civil parish ( unparished areas ), the administration of the activities normally undertaken by the parish becomes the responsibility of the district or borough council. The district council may make an additional council tax charge, known as
1755-446: A direct hydrometallurgical process or through the main industrial production processes, the sulfate process and the chloride process . The sulfate process represents 40% of the world’s titanium dioxide production and is protected in 23% of patent families. The chloride process is only mentioned in 8% of patent families, although it provides 60% of the worldwide industrial production of titanium dioxide. Key contributors to patents on
1872-671: A diseased or physically damaged dermis could be the true cause of insufficient barrier protection. SCCS research found that when nanoparticles had certain photostable coatings (e.g., alumina , silica , cetyl phosphate, triethoxycaprylylsilane , manganese dioxide ), the photocatalytic activity was attenuated and no notable skin penetration was observed; the sunscreen in this research was applied at amounts of 10 mg/cm2 for exposure periods of 24 hours. Coating TiO 2 with alumina, silica, zircon or various polymers can minimize avobenzone degradation and enhance UV absorption by adding an additional light diffraction mechanism. TiO 2
1989-526: A food coloring, it has E number E171. World production in 2014 exceeded 9 million tonnes. It has been estimated that titanium dioxide is used in two-thirds of all pigments, and pigments based on the oxide have been valued at a price of $ 13.2 billion. In all three of its main dioxides, titanium exhibits octahedral geometry , being bonded to six oxide anions. The oxides in turn are bonded to three Ti centers. The overall crystal structures of rutile and anatase are tetragonal in symmetry whereas brookite
2106-506: A limited colour change is possible in certain formulations depending on how and at which angle the finished product is illuminated and the thickness of the oxide layer in the pigment particle; one or more colours appear by reflection while the other tones appear due to interference of the transparent titanium dioxide layers. In some products, the layer of titanium dioxide is grown in conjunction with iron oxide by calcination of titanium salts (sulfates, chlorates) around 800 °C One example of
2223-443: A local structure in which each Ti is coordinated to, on average, about 5 oxygen atoms. This is distinct from the crystalline forms in which Ti coordinates to 6 oxygen atoms. Synthetic TiO 2 is mainly produced from the mineral ilmenite . Rutile , and anatase , naturally occurring TiO 2 , occur widely also, e.g. rutile as a 'heavy mineral' in beach sand. Leucoxene , fine-grained anatase formed by natural alteration of ilmenite,
2340-544: A long time. Widely-occurring minerals and even gemstones are composed of TiO 2 . All natural titanium, comprising more than 0.5% of the Earth's crust, exists as oxides. As of 2006, titanium dioxide had been regarded as "completely nontoxic when orally administered". However, concerns persist. TiO 2 whitener in food was banned in France from 2020, due to uncertainty about safe quantities for human consumption. In 2021,
2457-529: A new code. In either case the code must comply with the Nolan Principles of Public Life . A parish can be granted city status by the Crown . As of 2020 , eight parishes in England have city status, each having a long-established Anglican cathedral: Chichester , Ely , Hereford , Lichfield , Ripon , Salisbury , Truro and Wells . The council of an ungrouped parish may pass a resolution giving
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#17327836366742574-431: A new smaller manor, there was a means of making a chapel which, if generating or endowed with enough funds, would generally justify foundation of a parish, with its own parish priest (and in latter centuries vestry ). This consistency was a result of canon law which prized the status quo in issues between local churches and so made boundary changes and sub-division difficult. The consistency of these boundaries until
2691-806: A parish (a "detached part") was in a different county . In other cases, counties surrounded a whole parish meaning it was in an unconnected, "alien" county. These anomalies resulted in a highly localised difference in applicable representatives on the national level , justices of the peace , sheriffs, bailiffs with inconvenience to the inhabitants. If a parish was split then churchwardens, highway wardens and constables would also spend more time or money travelling large distances. Some parishes straddled two or more counties, such as Todmorden in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Titanium dioxide 3.15 eV (rutile) Titanium dioxide , also known as titanium(IV) oxide or titania / t aɪ ˈ t eɪ n i ə / ,
2808-416: A parish council, and instead will only have a parish meeting : an example of direct democracy . Alternatively several small parishes can be grouped together and share a common parish council, or even a common parish meeting. A parish council may decide to call itself a town council, village council, community council, neighbourhood council, or if the parish has city status, the parish council may call itself
2925-423: A pearlescent pigment is Iriodin, based on mica coated with titanium dioxide or iron (III) oxide. The iridescent effect in these titanium oxide particles is unlike the opaque effect obtained with usual ground titanium oxide pigment obtained by mining, in which case only a certain diameter of the particle is considered and the effect is due only to scattering. In cosmetic and skin care products, titanium dioxide
3042-495: A photocatalyst, attempts have been made to mineralize pollutants (to convert into CO 2 and H 2 O) in waste water. The photocatalytic destruction of organic matter could also be exploited in coatings with antimicrobial applications. Although nanosized anatase TiO 2 does not absorb visible light, it does strongly absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation ( hv ), leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals. This occurs when photo-induced valence bond holes (h vb ) are trapped at
3159-468: A pigment, titanium dioxide can be added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for its sterilizing, deodorizing, and anti-fouling properties, and is used as a hydrolysis catalyst . It is also used in dye-sensitized solar cells , which are a type of chemical solar cell (also known as a Graetzel cell). The photocatalytic properties of nanosized titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira Fujishima in 1967 and published in 1972. The process on
3276-431: A population in excess of 100,000 . This scope is similar to that of municipalities in continental Europe, such as the communes of France . However, unlike their continental European counterparts, parish councils are not principal authorities , and in most cases have a relatively minor role in local government. As of September 2023 , there are 10,464 parishes in England, and in 2020 they covered approximately 40% of
3393-503: A population of between 100 and 300 could request their county council to establish a parish council. Provision was also made for a grouped parish council to be established covering two or more rural parishes. In such groups, each parish retained its own parish meeting which could vote to leave the group, but otherwise the grouped parish council acted across the combined area of the parishes included. Urban civil parishes were not given their own parish councils, but were directly administered by
3510-483: A public house, village hall, a Church of England primary school and an alternative medical Centre called Orchard Barn, the church of St Peter and St Paul, a retirement home, a home for vulnerable people, and a home for people with mental health problems. Stallingborough is served by Stallingborough railway station (Barton Line) and connected to the road network by the A1173 and B1210. Civil parish In England,
3627-1079: A range of discretionary powers which they may exercise voluntarily. These powers have been defined by various pieces of legislation. The role they play can vary significantly depending on the size, resources and ability of the council, but their activities can include any of the following: Parish councils have powers to provide and manage various local facilities; these can include allotments , cemeteries, parks, playgrounds, playing fields and village greens , village halls or community centres , bus shelters, street lighting, roadside verges, car parks, footpaths, litter bins and war memorials. Larger parish councils may also be involved in running markets , public toilets and public clocks, museums and leisure centres . Parish councils may spend money on various things they deem to be beneficial to their communities, such as providing grants to local community groups or local projects, or fund things such as public events, crime prevention measures, community transport schemes, traffic calming or tourism promotion. Parish councils have
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3744-477: A result, biphasic titanium dioxide is often considered to possess enhanced functionality as a photocatalyst. It has been reported that titanium dioxide, when doped with nitrogen ions or doped with metal oxide like tungsten trioxide, exhibits excitation also under visible light. The strong oxidative potential of the positive holes oxidizes water to create hydroxyl radicals . It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials directly. Hence, in addition to its use as
3861-409: A role in the planning system; they have a statutory right to be consulted on any planning applications in their areas. They may also produce a neighbourhood plan to influence local development. The Localism Act 2011 allowed eligible parish councils to be granted a " general power of competence " which allows them within certain limits the freedom to do anything an individual can do provided it
3978-598: A set number of guardians for each parish, hence a final purpose of urban civil parishes. With the abolition of the Poor Law system in 1930, urban parishes became a geographical division only with no administrative power; that was exercised at the urban district or borough council level. In 1965 civil parishes in London were formally abolished when Greater London was created, as the legislative framework for Greater London did not make provision for any local government body below
4095-458: A small number of crystallites from the mean crystal size and modifies the physical behaviour of TiO 2 . The optical properties of the finished pigment are highly sensitive to purity. As little as a few parts per million (ppm) of certain metals (Cr, V, Cu, Fe, Nb) can disturb the crystal lattice so much that the effect can be detected in quality control. Approximately 4.6 million tons of pigmentary TiO 2 are used annually worldwide, and this number
4212-943: A small village or town ward to a large tract of mostly uninhabited moorland in the Cheviots, Pennines or Dartmoor. The two largest as at December 2023 are Stanhope (County Durham) at 98.6 square miles (255 km ), and Dartmoor Forest (Devon) at 79.07 square miles (204.8 km ). The two smallest are parcels of shared rural land: Lands Common to Axminster and Kilmington (Devon) at 0.012 square miles (0.031 km ; 3.1 ha; 7.7 acres), and Lands Common to Brancepeth and Brandon and Byshottles (County Durham) at 0.0165 square miles (0.043 km ; 4.3 ha; 10.6 acres). The next two smallest are parishes in built up areas: Chester Castle (Cheshire) at 0.0168 square miles (0.044 km ; 4.4 ha; 10.8 acres) (no recorded population) and Hamilton Lea (Leicestershire) at 0.07 square miles (0.18 km ; 18 ha; 45 acres) (1,021 residents at
4329-521: A spur to the creation of new parishes in some larger towns which were previously unparished, in order to retain a local tier of government; examples include Shrewsbury (2009), Salisbury (2009), Crewe (2013) and Weymouth (2019). In 2003 seven new parish councils were set up for Burton upon Trent , and in 2001 the Milton Keynes urban area became entirely parished, with ten new parishes being created. Parishes can also be abolished where there
4446-405: A will of Ric[hard] Hooton of Stallingborough dated 1530. The village was also the site of a manor house and associated formal gardens (post medieval, probably early 17th century). The medieval church collapsed in 1746, and the manor house was demolished in the same period. Enclosure in the 18th century reduced the population again, to around 67 households by 1758. St Peter & St Paul's Church
4563-612: Is adjacent to Synthomer's plant. An industrial freight railway line to Immingham Docks (the former Grimsby and Immingham Electric Railway ), the A180 road , the Barton Line (the former Great Grimsby and Sheffield Junction Railway , opened 1845), and the B1210 road run through the parish parallel to the coast (in order from north to south). At the 2011 census the parish population was 1,234. Stallingborough village amenities include
4680-507: Is at present the only part of England where civil parishes cannot be created. If enough electors in the area of a proposed new parish (ranging from 50% in an area with less than 500 electors to 10% in one with more than 2,500) sign a petition demanding its creation, then the local district council or unitary authority must consider the proposal. Since the beginning of the 21st century, numerous parish councils have been created, including some relatively large urban ones. The main driver has been
4797-539: Is evidence that this is in response to "justified, clear and sustained local support" from the area's inhabitants. Examples are Birtley , which was abolished in 2006, and Southsea , abolished in 2010. Every civil parish has a parish meeting, which all the electors of the parish are entitled to attend. Generally a meeting is held once a year. A civil parish may have a parish council which exercises various local responsibilities prescribed by statute. Parishes with fewer than 200 electors are usually deemed too small to have
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4914-478: Is expected to increase as use continues to rise. TiO 2 is also an effective opacifier in powder form, where it is employed as a pigment to provide whiteness and opacity to products such as paints , coatings , plastics , papers , inks , foods , supplements , medicines (i.e. pills and tablets), and most toothpastes ; in 2019 it was present in two-thirds of toothpastes on the French market. In paint, it
5031-562: Is found as a mineral in magmatic rocks and hydrothermal veins, as well as weathering rims on perovskite . TiO 2 also forms lamellae in other minerals. The largest TiO 2 pigment processors are Chemours , Venator , Kronos [ de ] , and Tronox . Major paint and coating company end users for pigment grade titanium dioxide include Akzo Nobel , PPG Industries , Sherwin Williams , BASF , Kansai Paints and Valspar . Global TiO 2 pigment demand for 2010
5148-765: Is found in the majority of physical sunscreens because of its strong UV light absorbing capabilities and its resistance to discolouration under ultraviolet light. This advantage enhances its stability and ability to protect the skin from ultraviolet light. Nano-scaled (particle size of 20–40 nm) titanium dioxide particles are primarily used in sunscreen lotion because they scatter visible light much less than titanium dioxide pigments, and can give UV protection. Sunscreens designed for infants or people with sensitive skin are often based on titanium dioxide and/or zinc oxide , as these mineral UV blockers are believed to cause less skin irritation than other UV absorbing chemicals. Nano-TiO 2 , which blocks both UV-A and UV-B radiation,
5265-447: Is generally used in cosmetic and sunscreen products due to it not possessing any observed ability to damage the skin under normal conditions and having a higher UV absorption . In 2016 Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) tests concluded that the use of nano titanium dioxide (95–100% rutile, ≦5% anatase) as a UV filter can be considered to not pose any risk of adverse effects in humans post-application on healthy skin, except in
5382-520: Is known as riesite. Both of which can be found at the Ries crater in Bavaria . It is mainly sourced from ilmenite , which is the most widespread titanium dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable anatase and brookite phases convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile phase upon heating above temperatures in
5499-405: Is not prohibited by other legislation, as opposed to being limited to the powers explicitly granted to them by law. To be eligible for this, a parish council must meet certain conditions such as having a clerk with suitable qualifications. Parish councils receive funding by levying a " precept " on the council tax paid by the residents of the parish (or parishes) served by the parish council. In
5616-413: Is often referred to offhandedly as "brilliant white", "the perfect white", "the whitest white", or other similar terms. Opacity is improved by optimal sizing of the titanium dioxide particles. In food, it is commonly found in ice creams, chocolates, all types of candy, creamers, desserts, marshmallows, chewing gum, pastries, spreads, dressings, cakes, some cheeses, and many other foods. When deposited as
5733-415: Is orthorhombic. The oxygen substructures are all slight distortions of close packing : in rutile, the oxide anions are arranged in distorted hexagonal close-packing, whereas they are close to cubic close-packing in anatase and to "double hexagonal close-packing" for brookite. The rutile structure is widespread for other metal dioxides and difluorides, e.g. RuO 2 and ZnF 2 . Molten titanium dioxide has
5850-532: Is produced in varying particle sizes which are both oil and water dispersible, and in certain grades for the cosmetic industry. It is also a common ingredient in toothpaste. The exterior of the Saturn V rocket was painted with titanium dioxide; this later allowed astronomers to determine that J002E3 was likely the S-IVB stage from Apollo 12 and not an asteroid . Titanium dioxide is an n-type semiconductor and
5967-406: Is reportedly most pronounced at the {001} planes of anatase, although the {101} planes are thermodynamically more stable and thus more prominent in most synthesised and natural anatase, as evident by the often observed tetragonal dipyramidal growth habit . Interfaces between rutile and anatase are further considered to improve photocatalytic activity by facilitating charge carrier separation and as
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#17327836366746084-405: Is surpassed only by a few other materials (see list of indices of refraction ). Titanium dioxide crystal size is ideally around 220 nm (measured by electron microscope) to optimize the maximum reflection of visible light. However, abnormal grain growth is often observed in titanium dioxide, particularly in its rutile phase. The occurrence of abnormal grain growth brings about a deviation of
6201-401: Is the inorganic compound derived from titanium with the chemical formula TiO 2 . When used as a pigment , it is called titanium white , Pigment White 6 ( PW6 ), or CI 77891 . It is a white solid that is insoluble in water, although mineral forms can appear black. As a pigment, it has a wide range of applications, including paint , sunscreen , and food coloring . When used as
6318-716: Is used as a pigment, sunscreen and a thickener . As a sunscreen, ultrafine TiO 2 is used, which is notable in that combined with ultrafine zinc oxide , it is considered to be an effective sunscreen that lowers the incidence of sun burns and minimizes the premature photoaging , photocarcinogenesis and immunosuppression associated with long term excess sun exposure. Sometimes these UV blockers are combined with iron oxide pigments in sunscreen to increase visible light protection. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are generally considered to be less harmful to coral reefs than sunscreens that include chemicals such as oxybenzone , octocrylene and octinoxate . Nanosized titanium dioxide
6435-436: Is used extensively in plastics and other applications as a white pigment or an opacifier and for its UV resistant properties where the powder disperses light – unlike organic UV absorbers – and reduces UV damage, due mostly to the particle's high refractive index. In ceramic glazes , titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal formation. It is used as a tattoo pigment and in styptic pencils . Titanium dioxide
6552-528: Is used in dye-sensitized solar cells . It is also used in other electronics components such as electrodes in batteries. Between 2002 and 2022, there were 459 patent families that describe the production of titanium dioxide from ilmenite . The majority of these patents describe pre-treatment processes, such as using smelting and magnetic separation to increase titanium concentration in low-grade ores, leading to titanium concentrates or slags. Other patents describe processes to obtain titanium dioxide, either by
6669-406: Is used in fiber and paper applications. The sulfate process is run as a batch process ; the chloride process is run as a continuous process . In chloride process , the ore is treated with chlorine and carbon to give titanium tetrachloride , a volatile liquid that is further purified by distillation. The TiCl4 is treated with oxygen to regenerate chlorine and produce the titanium dioxide. In
6786-429: Is used in sunscreens and other cosmetic products. The EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety considered nano sized titanium dioxide to be safe for skin applications, in concentrations of up to 25 percent based on animal testing. The risk assessment of different titanium dioxide nanomaterials in sunscreen is currently evolving since nano-sized TiO 2 is different from the well-known micronized form. The rutile form
6903-408: Is yet another ore. Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from oriented inclusions of rutile needles. Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the minerals rutile and anatase . Additionally two high-pressure forms are known minerals: a monoclinic baddeleyite -like form known as akaogiite , and the other has a slight monoclinic distortion of the orthorhombic α-PbO 2 structure and
7020-504: The 'Standards Board regime' with local monitoring by district, unitary or equivalent authorities. Under new regulations which came into effect in 2012 all parish councils in England are required to adopt a code of conduct with which parish councillors must comply, and to promote and maintain high standards. A new criminal offence of failing to comply with statutory requirements was introduced. More than one 'model code' has been published, and councils are free to modify an existing code or adopt
7137-551: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) ruled that as a consequence of new understandings of nanoparticles , titanium dioxide could "no longer be considered safe as a food additive", and the EU health commissioner announced plans to ban its use across the EU, with discussions beginning in June 2021. EFSA concluded that genotoxicity —which could lead to carcinogenic effects—could not be ruled out, and that
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#17327836366747254-1010: The Local Government Act 1894 ( 56 & 57 Vict. c. 73) to become the smallest geographical area for local government in rural areas. The act abolished the civil (non-ecclesiastical) duties of vestries . Parishes which straddled county boundaries or sanitary districts had to be split so that the part in each urban or rural sanitary district became a separate parish (see List of county exclaves in England and Wales 1844–1974 ). The sanitary districts were then reconstituted as urban districts and rural districts , with parishes that fell within urban districts classed as urban parishes, and parishes that fell within rural districts were classed as rural parishes. The 1894 act established elected civil parish councils as to all rural parishes with more than 300 electors, and established annual parish meetings in all rural parishes. Civil parishes were grouped to form either rural or urban districts which are thereafter classified as either type. The parish meetings for parishes with
7371-676: The Second World War . The Grimsby and Immingham Electric Railway was built through the northern part of the parish in 1912. Gun batteries were also installed on the Humber foreshore at Stallingborough in the first and second world wars. During the First World War Stallingborough battery had two 6 inch breech-loading Mk VII guns ; the First World War fort is evidenced by a pillbox. There was also
7488-588: The Sorel-Tracy plant of QIT-Fer et Titane and the Eramet Titanium & Iron smelter in Tyssedal Norway. The Becher process is another method for the production of synthetic rutile from ilmenite. It first oxidizes the ilmenite as a means to separate the iron component. For specialty applications, TiO 2 films are prepared by various specialized chemistries. Sol-gel routes involve
7605-472: The break with Rome , parishes managed ecclesiastical matters, while the manor was the principal unit of local administration and justice. Later, the church replaced the manor court as the rural administrative centre, and levied a local tax on produce known as a tithe . In the medieval period, responsibilities such as relief of the poor passed increasingly from the lord of the manor to the parish's rector , who in practice would delegate tasks among his vestry or
7722-595: The lord of the manor , but not all were willing and able to provide, so residents would be expected to attend the church of the nearest manor with a church. Later, the churches and priests became to a greater extent the responsibility of the Catholic Church thus this was formalised; the grouping of manors into one parish was recorded, as was a manor-parish existing in its own right. Boundaries changed little, and for centuries after 1180 'froze', despite changes to manors' extents. However, by subinfeudation , making
7839-403: The monarch ). A civil parish may be equally known as and confirmed as a town, village, neighbourhood or community by resolution of its parish council, a right not conferred on other units of English local government. The governing body of a civil parish is usually an elected parish council (which can decide to call itself a town, village, community or neighbourhood council, or a city council if
7956-470: The (often well-endowed) monasteries. After the dissolution of the monasteries , the power to levy a rate to fund relief of the poor was conferred on the parish authorities by the Poor Relief Act 1601 . Both before and after this optional social change, local (vestry-administered) charities are well-documented. The parish authorities were known as vestries and consisted of all the ratepayers of
8073-471: The 11th century Domesday Book . The medieval village of Stallingborough was to the west of the modern village and south of the 18th century church. The rights to hold a market and annual fair were granted by Henry III (13th century). Before the Black Death of the mid 14th century, the village had 50–60 households. This substantially decreased after the plague, but recovered to around 150 households by
8190-477: The 1960s a number of companies ( Doverstrand , Revertex , Harco ) developed chemical plants producing synthetic lattices and resins at a site south-east of the Battery Works , also on the estuary foreshore. After a series of company reorganisations and takeovers, the works were organised under a single company, Synthomer , by 2002. The village of Stallingborough underwent some minor housing development in
8307-403: The 19th century and are now entirely separate. Civil parishes in their modern form came into being through the Local Government Act 1894 ( 56 & 57 Vict. c. 73), which established elected parish councils to take on the secular functions of the parish vestry . A civil parish can range in size from a sparsely populated rural area with fewer than a hundred inhabitants, to a large town with
8424-564: The 19th century is useful to historians, and is also of cultural significance in terms of shaping local identities; reinforced by the use of grouped parish boundaries, often, by successive local authority areas; and in a very rough, operations-geared way by most postcode districts. There was (and is) wide disparity in parish size. Writtle , Essex traditionally measures 13,568 acres (21 sq mi) – two parishes neighbouring are Shellow Bowells at 469 acres (0.7 sq mi), and Chignall Smealy at 476 acres (0.7 sq mi) Until
8541-591: The 2011 census, Newland with Woodhouse Moor and Beaumont Chase reported inhabitants, and there were no new deserted parishes recorded. Nearly all instances of detached parts of civil parishes (areas not contiguous with the main part of the parish) and of those straddling counties have been ended. 14 examples remain in England as at 2022, including Barnby Moor and Wallingwells , both in Nottinghamshire. Direct predecessors of civil parishes are most often known as "ancient parishes", although many date only from
8658-511: The 2021 census). The 2001 census recorded several parishes with no inhabitants. These were Chester Castle (in the middle of Chester city centre), Newland with Woodhouse Moor , Beaumont Chase , Martinsthorpe , Meering , Stanground North (subsequently abolished), Sturston , Tottington , and Tyneham (subsequently merged). The lands of the last three were taken over by the Armed Forces during World War II and remain deserted. In
8775-590: The Battery Works. In the 1990s " Dash for gas " the 1.26 GW South Humber Bank Power Station was constructed adjacent to the Synthomer chemical plant in two phases from 1997 to 1999. In 2006 a training centre for the chemical industry, CATCH ("Centre for Assessment and Technical Competence Humber") opened at Stallingbrough industrial estate. In 2007 planning permission was given to construct 35 houses at Poaches Rise, south of Station Road south-west of
8892-570: The English population. For historical reasons, civil parishes predominantly cover rural areas and smaller urban areas, with most larger urban areas being wholly or partly unparished ; but since 1997 it has been possible for civil parishes to be created within unparished areas if demanded by local residents . In 2007 the right to create civil parishes was extended to London boroughs , although only one, Queen's Park , has so far been created. Eight parishes also have city status (a status granted by
9009-738: The administration of the poor laws was the main civil function of parishes, the Poor Law Amendment Act 1866 , which received royal assent on 10 August 1866, declared all areas that levied a separate rate or had their own overseer of the poor to be parishes. This included the Church of England parishes (until then simply known as "parishes"), extra-parochial areas , townships and chapelries . To have collected rates this means these beforehand had their own vestries, boards or equivalent bodies. Parishes using this definition subsequently became known as "civil parishes" to distinguish them from
9126-504: The case the application method would lead to substantial risk of inhalation (ie; powder or spray formulations). This safety opinion applied to nano TiO 2 in concentrations of up to 25%. Initial studies indicated that nano-TiO 2 particles could penetrate the skin, causing concern over its use. These studies were later refuted, when it was discovered that the testing methodology couldn't differentiate between penetrated particles and particles simply trapped in hair follicles and that having
9243-399: The charter, the charter may be transferred to a parish council for its area. Where there is no such parish council, the district council may appoint charter trustees to whom the charter and the arms of the former borough will belong. The charter trustees (who consist of the councillor or councillors for the area of the former borough) maintain traditions such as mayoralty . An example of such
9360-589: The coast. To the north-east the parish is bounded by the Humber Estuary ; south-east is the parish of Healing , with the Oldfleet drain forming most of the boundary; to the north-west is the parish of Immingham with the North Beck Drain forming the northern part of the boundary; the parishes of Keelby and Riby are to the south-west and south respectively. The area is predominantly low-lying:
9477-537: The council are carried out by a paid officer, typically known as a parish clerk. Councils may employ additional people (including bodies corporate, provided where necessary, by tender) to carry out specific tasks dictated by the council. Some councils have chosen to pay their elected members an allowance, as permitted under part 5 of the Local Authorities (Members' Allowances) (England) Regulations 2003. The number of councillors varies roughly in proportion to
9594-464: The council of the urban district or borough in which they were contained. Many urban parishes were coterminous (geographically identical) with the urban district or municipal borough in which they lay. Towns which included multiple urban parishes often consolidated the urban parishes into one. The urban parishes continued to be used as an electoral area for electing guardians to the poor law unions . The unions took in areas in multiple parishes and had
9711-466: The council will an election be held. However, sometimes there are fewer candidates than seats. When this happens, the vacant seats have to be filled by co-option by the council. If a vacancy arises for a seat mid-term, an election is only held if a certain number (usually ten) of parish residents request an election. Otherwise the council will co-opt someone to be the replacement councillor. The Localism Act 2011 introduced new arrangements which replaced
9828-525: The creation of town and parish councils is encouraged in unparished areas . The Local Government and Rating Act 1997 created a procedure which gave residents in unparished areas the right to demand that a new parish and parish council be created. This right was extended to London boroughs by the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007 – with this, the City of London
9945-463: The desire to have a more local tier of government when new larger authorities have been created, which are felt to be remote from local concerns and identity. A number of parishes have been created in places which used to have their own borough or district council; examples include Daventry (2003), Folkestone (2004), Kidderminster (2015) and Sutton Coldfield (2016). The trend towards the creation of geographically large unitary authorities has been
10062-439: The ecclesiastical parishes. The Church of England parishes, which cover more than 99% of England, have become officially (and to avoid ambiguity) termed ecclesiastical parishes . The limits of many of these have diverged; most greatly through changes in population and church attendance (these factors can cause churches to be opened or closed). Since 1921, each has been the responsibility of its own parochial church council . In
10179-534: The established English Church, which for a few years after Henry VIII alternated between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England , before settling on the latter on the accession of Elizabeth I in 1558. By the 18th century, religious membership was becoming more fractured in some places, due in part to the progress of Methodism . The legitimacy of the parish vestry came into question, and
10296-455: The government at the time of the Local Government Act 1972 discouraged their creation for large towns or their suburbs, but there is generally nothing to stop their establishment. For example, Birmingham has two parishes ( New Frankley and Sutton Coldfield ), Oxford has four, and the Milton Keynes urban area has 24. Parishes could not however be established in London until the law was changed in 2007. A civil parish can range in area from
10413-421: The hydrolysis of titanium alkoxides such as titanium ethoxide : A related approach that also relies on molecular precursors involves chemical vapor deposition . In this method, the alkoxide is volatilized and then decomposed on contact with a hot surface: First mass-produced in 1916, titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because of its brightness and very high refractive index , in which it
10530-399: The land north-east of Stallingborough village is below 5 metres (16 ft) elevation; south-west of the village the land rises to 16 metres (52 ft) above sea level. A minor landmark is a former cereal mill, south of the village. Stallingborough village is the only settlement of any note in the parish, apart from industrial buildings; the small hamlet of Little London is to the west of
10647-476: The late 19th century, most of the "ancient" (a legal term equivalent to time immemorial ) irregularities inherited by the civil parish system were cleaned up, and the majority of exclaves were abolished. The census of 1911 noted that 8,322 (58%) of "parishes" in England and Wales were not geographically identical when comparing the civil to the ecclesiastical form. In 1894, civil parishes were reformed by
10764-739: The lattice structure of the surface layer of titanium dioxide nanocrystals, permitting infrared absorption. Visible-light-active nanosized anatase and rutile has been developed for photocatalytic applications. In 1995 Fujishima and his group discovered the superhydrophilicity phenomenon for titanium dioxide coated glass exposed to sun light. This resulted in the development of self-cleaning glass and anti-fogging coatings. Nanosized TiO 2 incorporated into outdoor building materials, such as paving stones in noxer blocks or paints, could reduce concentrations of airborne pollutants such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides . A TiO 2 -containing cement has been produced. Using TiO 2 as
10881-605: The mid 16th century. The medieval village is evidenced by earthworks, as well as cropmarks of fishponds , remains of ridge and furrow farming to the north, and a medieval cross in the churchyard of the modern church. The medieval hagiography , On the Resting-Places of the Saints records that Stallingborough is the burial place of the Anglo-Saxon Saint Avbur . A chapel to St Avbur is mentioned in
10998-465: The mid 19th century. Using a longer historical lens the better terms are "pre-separation (civil and ecclesiastical) parish", "original medieval parishes" and "new parishes". The Victoria County History , a landmark collaborative work mostly written in the 20th century (although incomplete), summarises the history of each English "parish", roughly meaning late medieval parish. A minority of these had exclaves , which could be: In some cases an exclave of
11115-465: The new district councils (outside London) to review their parishes, and many areas left unparished in 1972 have since been made parishes, either in whole or part. For example, Hinckley , whilst entirely unparished in 1974, now has four civil parishes, which together cover part of its area, whilst the central part of the town remains unparished. Some parishes were sub-divided into smaller territories known as hamlets , tithings or townships . Nowadays
11232-488: The other conurbations. Civil parishes vary greatly in population: some have populations below 100 and have no settlement larger than a hamlet , while others cover towns with populations of tens of thousands. Weston-super-Mare , with a population of 71,758, is the most populous civil parish. In many cases small settlements, today popularly termed villages , localities or suburbs, are in a single parish which originally had one church. Large urban areas are mostly unparished, as
11349-448: The parish has city status). Alternatively, in parishes with small populations (typically fewer than 150 electors) governance may be by a parish meeting which all electors may attend; alternatively, parishes with small populations may be grouped with one or more neighbours under a common parish council. Wales was also divided into civil parishes until 1974, when they were replaced by communities , which are similar to English parishes in
11466-401: The parish the status of a town, at which point the council becomes a town council . Around 400 parish councils are called town councils. Under the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007 , a civil parish may be given one of the following alternative styles: As a result, a parish council can be called a town council, a community council, a village council or occasionally
11583-404: The parish. As the number of ratepayers of some parishes grew, it became increasingly difficult to convene meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built-up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the entire body of ratepayers. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite. The administration of the parish system relied on the monopoly of
11700-562: The parish; the church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and became voluntary from 1868. During the 17th century it was found that the 1601 Poor Law did not work well for very large parishes, which were particularly common in northern England. Such parishes were typically subdivided into multiple townships , which levied their rates separately. The Poor Relief Act 1662 therefore directed that for poor law purposes 'parish' meant any place which maintained its own poor, thereby converting many townships into separate 'poor law parishes'. As
11817-499: The perceived inefficiency and corruption inherent in the system became a source for concern in some places. For this reason, during the early 19th century the parish progressively lost its powers to ad hoc boards and other organisations, such as the boards of guardians given responsibility for poor relief through the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 . Sanitary districts covered England in 1875 and Ireland three years later. The replacement boards were each entitled to levy their own rate in
11934-411: The population of the parish. Most rural parish councillors are elected to represent the entire parish, though in parishes with larger populations or those that cover larger areas, the parish can be divided into wards. Each of these wards then returns councillors to the parish council (the numbers depending on their population). Only if there are more candidates standing for election than there are seats on
12051-476: The production of titanium dioxide are companies from China, Australia and the United States, reflecting the major contribution of these countries to industrial production. Chinese companies Pangang and Lomon Billions Groups hold major patent portfolios. Nanosized titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, exhibits photocatalytic activity under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This photoactivity
12168-423: The range 600–800 °C (1,110–1,470 °F). Titanium dioxide has twelve known polymorphs – in addition to rutile, anatase, brookite, akaogiite and riesite, three metastable phases can be produced synthetically ( monoclinic , tetragonal , and orthorhombic ramsdellite-like), and four high-pressure forms (α-PbO 2 -like, cotunnite -like, orthorhombic OI, and cubic phases) also exist: The cotunnite -type phase
12285-460: The second half of the 20th century. By the end of the 1970s small cul-de-sac developments had been built south of the railway line off Station Road, with further small developments towards the end of the century. The B1210 to the south of the village was built c. 1960 . The A180 road was built in the 1970s, and passes through the north of parish, On 14 June 1966, a Royal Air Force Vickers Varsity trainer from RAF Lindholme collided with
12402-554: The station. In 2008 planning permission was given to construct 43 houses (Saxonfields Drive) in the south of village near the B1210 roundabout. Houses were built at both sites. In 2016 an 88 acres (36 ha) vehicle handling site, for use by Kia Motors , was officially opened at the Kiln Lane industrial estate. The civil parish of Stallingborough is located in the county of North East Lincolnshire between Immingham and Grimsby . The parish extends about 3.7 miles (6 km) from
12519-413: The sulfate process, ilmenite is treated with sulfuric acid to extract iron(II) sulfate pentahydrate . This process requires concentrated ilmenite (45–60% TiO 2 ) or pretreated feedstocks as a suitable source of titanium. The resulting synthetic rutile is further processed according to the specifications of the end user, i.e. pigment grade or otherwise. Examples of plants using the sulfate process are
12636-561: The surface of TiO 2 leading to the formation of trapped holes (h tr ) that cannot oxidize water. Anatase can be converted into non-carbon nanotubes and nanowires . Hollow TiO 2 nanofibers can be also prepared by coating carbon nanofibers by first applying titanium butoxide . Titanium dioxide is insoluble in water, organic solvents, and inorganic acids. It is slightly soluble in alkali , soluble in saturated potassium acid carbonate, and can be completely dissolved in strong sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid after boiling for
12753-558: The surface of the titanium dioxide was called the Honda-Fujishima effect [ ja ] . In thin film and nanoparticle form, titanium dioxide has the potential for use in energy production: As a photocatalyst, it can break water into hydrogen and oxygen. With the hydrogen collected, it could be used as a fuel. The efficiency of this process can be greatly improved by doping the oxide with carbon. Further efficiency and durability has been obtained by introducing disorder to
12870-529: The village. A fixed lighthouse ( Stallingborough Light ) was built in 1849 (lat. 53°37'), located in the Ferry House on the east bank of the outlet onto the Humber of the North Beck Drain. In about 1860 the Hull Citadel was decommissioned, and new gun batteries constructed to replace it; the major works was the fort at Paull on the north bank of the Humber; at Stallingborough a battery of 6 guns
12987-574: The village. Land use is predominantly agricultural, with drained enclosed fields; near the Humber Estuary foreshore there are industrial developments. There is a large industrial estate in the north of the parish; two chemical plants are located near the estuary foreshore: Cristal's Stallingborough plant (also known as the Battery Works, the former Millennium Inorganic Chemicals , or Laporte plc plant); and Synthomer's Stallingborough plant . The 1.28 GW South Humber Bank gas fired power station
13104-666: The way they operate. Civil parishes in Scotland were abolished for local government purposes by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929 ; the Scottish equivalent of English civil parishes are the community council areas established by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 , which have fewer powers than their English and Welsh counterparts. There are no equivalent units in Northern Ireland . The parish system in Europe
13221-399: Was 5.3 Mt with annual growth expected to be about 3–4%. The production method depends on the feedstock. In addition to ores, other feedstocks include upgraded slag . Both the chloride process and the sulfate process (both described below) produce titanium dioxide pigment in the rutile crystal form, but the sulfate process can be adjusted to produce the anatase form. Anatase, being softer,
13338-525: Was built in brick in 1779–81. In 1801 the village had a population of 274 in 59 houses, in 1821 343 persons in 63 houses. An 18th century extension of the Manor House, known as Stallingborough House, survived until the 1840s, when it was also demolished. Stallingborough railway station and the Great Grimsby and Sheffield Junction Railway opened around 1848, passing through the northern part of
13455-472: Was built. In about 1887 the village included the church and vicarage, a smithy, and a Wesleyan and a Primitive Methodist Chapel, with the railway passing north of the church; the village extended to the north of the railway line, including the Green Man Inn, a manor house, and various dwellings spread along the main road. The extent of development of the village remained mostly unchanged until after
13572-515: Was claimed to be the hardest known oxide with the Vickers hardness of 38 GPa and the bulk modulus of 431 GPa (i.e. close to diamond's value of 446 GPa) at atmospheric pressure. However, later studies came to different conclusions with much lower values for both the hardness (7–20 GPa, which makes it softer than common oxides like corundum Al 2 O 3 and rutile TiO 2 ) and bulk modulus (~300 GPa). Titanium dioxide (B)
13689-498: Was established between the 8th and 12th centuries, and an early form was long established in England by the time of the Norman Conquest . These areas were originally based on the territory of manors , which, in some cases, derived their bounds from Roman or Iron Age estates; some large manors were sub-divided into several parishes. Initially, churches and their priests were the gift and continued patronage (benefaction) of
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