Misplaced Pages

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74-471: Shuhari roughly translates to "to keep, to fall, to break away" or "follow the rules, break the rules, transcend the rules". Shuhari can be decomposed in 3 kanjis: While the concept of Shuhari is very old, and most often identified with martial arts in general, it actually has its roots in early Japanese theater and poetry. This historical context is important because part of the literal meaning of Shuhari has also evolved. In feudal Japan (including during

148-444: A century of warfare. The political structure, established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and solidified under his two immediate successors, his son Tokugawa Hidetada (who ruled from 1616 to 1623) and grandson Tokugawa Iemitsu (1623–51), bound all daimyōs to the shogunate and limited any individual daimyō from acquiring too much land or power. The Tokugawa shogunate came to its official end on 9   November 1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu ,

222-473: A formal declaration of the restoration of his power: The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to the Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently,

296-464: A loss of their cultural heritage. In the case of Hikone Castle , even though the government ordered its dismantling, it was saved by orders from the emperor himself. Nagoya Castle and Nijo Castle , due to their historical and cultural importance and sheer size and strategic locations, both became official imperial detached palaces, before they were turned over to the local authorities in the 1930s. Others such as Himeji Castle survived by luck. During

370-617: A national system of public schools. These free schools taught students reading, writing, and mathematics. Students also attended courses in "moral training" which reinforced their duty to the Emperor and to the Japanese state. By the end of the Meiji period, attendance in public schools was widespread, increasing the availability of skilled workers and contributing to the industrial growth of Japan . The opening up of Japan not only consisted of

444-497: A strict government monopoly. This "Pax Tokugawa" period is largely associated with domestic peace, social stability, commercial development, and expanded literacy. This policy had two main objectives: By the early 19th century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from

518-400: A strong centralized state defining its national identity, the government established a dominant national dialect, called "standard language" ( 標準語 , hyōjungo ) , that replaced local and regional dialects and was based on the patterns of Tokyo's samurai classes. This dialect eventually became the norm in the realms of education, media, government, and business. The Meiji Restoration, and

592-411: A subset of its former meaning: a village or even place of birth (especially in the sense of a small town of birth). This is because fiefdoms, which centered around villages, were measured in ri. As the concept of fiefdoms receded and then disappeared, the meaning of ri changed from the distance that included the village to the village itself. At that point, the "ri" of shuhari became ri, still maintaining

666-599: A sword or weapon to show their status. This led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the major riots was the one led by Saigō Takamori, the Satsuma Rebellion , which eventually turned into a civil war. This rebellion was, however, put down swiftly by the newly formed Imperial Japanese Army , trained in Western tactics and weapons, even though the core of the new army was the Tokyo police force, which

740-426: Is equally true that the majority of samurai were content despite having their status abolished. Many found employment in the government bureaucracy, which resembled an elite class in its own right. The samurai, being better educated than most of the population, became teachers, gun makers, government officials, and/or military officers. While the formal title of samurai was abolished, the elitist spirit that characterized

814-624: The Battle of Hakodate in Hokkaidō. The defeat of the armies of the former shōgun (led by Enomoto Takeaki and Hijikata Toshizō ) marked the final end of the Tokugawa shogunate, with the Emperor's power fully restored. Finally, by 1872, the daimyōs , past and present, were summoned before the Emperor, where it was declared that all domains were now to be returned to the Emperor . The roughly 280 domains were turned into 72 prefectures, each under

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888-546: The Blood tax riots , the Meiji government put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry that the traditional untouchable status of burakumin was legally revoked. Under the Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end of sakoku in 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With

962-678: The Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity ( 日米和親条約 , Nichibei Washin Jōyaku ), was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854. Signed under threat of force , it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion ( sakoku ) by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established

1036-470: The daimyō for their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive. The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer; of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favour of accepting the American demands and 19 were equally opposed. Of

1110-611: The " unequal treaty system" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period. The Kanagawa treaty was also followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty , October 1854), Russia ( Treaty of Shimoda , February 7, 1855), and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan , October 9, 1858). Internally, the treaty had far-reaching consequences. Decisions to suspend previous restrictions on military activities led to re-armament by many domains and further weakened

1184-434: The 15th Tokugawa shōgun , "put his prerogatives at the Emperor's disposal" and resigned 10 days later. This was effectively the "restoration" ( Taisei Hōkan ) of imperial rule – although Yoshinobu still had significant influence and it was not until January   3, the following year, with the young Emperor's edict, that the restoration fully occurred. On 3 January 1868, the Emperor stripped Yoshinobu of all power and made

1258-499: The 1860s, principally by Westerners in the international settlements of Yokohama and Kobe, and some local lords, but these had relatively small impacts. It was only in the 1870s that imported technologies began to play a significant role, and only in the 1880s did they produce more than a small output volume. In Meiji Japan, raw silk was the most important export commodity, and raw silks exports experienced enormous growth during this period, overtaking China. Revenue from silk exports funded

1332-514: The British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the perceived benefits of western civilization and Christianity on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. From the Japanese perspective, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the increasing disparity between western military technology and

1406-616: The Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era , men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning the chonmage ( chonmage ) hairstyle. During the Meiji Restoration, the practice of cremation and Buddhism were condemned and the Japanese government tried to ban cremation but were unsuccessful, then tried to limit it in urban areas. The Japanese government reversed its ban on cremation and pro-cremation Japanese adopted western European arguments on how cremation

1480-502: The Emperor to power. After Kōmei's death on 30 January 1867, Meiji ascended the throne on February   3. This period also saw Japan change from being a feudal society to having a centralized nation and left the Japanese with a lingering influence of modernity . In the same year, the koban was discontinued as a form of currency. The Tokugawa government had been founded in the 17th century and initially focused on reestablishing order in social, political and international affairs after

1554-727: The French Minister-Resident Léon Roches were the first European envoys ever to receive a personal audience with Meiji in Edo (Tokyo). This audience laid the foundation for (modern) Dutch diplomacy in Japan. Subsequently, De Graeff van Polsbroek assisted the emperor and the government in their negotiations with representatives of the major European powers. In 1869, the daimyōs of the Tosa , Hizen , Satsuma and Chōshū Domains , who were pushing most fiercely against

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1628-556: The Japanese feudal armies fostered growing concern. The Japanese had been keeping abreast of world events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage. There was a considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty in light of events occurring in China with

1702-439: The Japanese purchase of industrial equipment and raw materials. Although the highest quality silk remained produced in China, and Japan's adoption of modern machines in the silk industry was slow, Japan was able to capture the global silk market due to standardized production of silk. Standardization, especially in silkworm egg cultivation, yielded more consistency in quality, particularly important for mechanized silk weaving. Since

1776-550: The Meiji Restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi , leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma and Chōshū Domains at the southwestern end of the Japanese archipelago. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei (Emperor Meiji's father) and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate ( bakufu ) and restoring

1850-491: The Meiji government considerable leeway to invest in new initiatives. During the Meiji period, powers such as Europe and the United States helped transform Japan and made them realize a change needed to take place. Some leaders went out to foreign lands and used the knowledge and government writings to help shape and form a more influential government within their walls that allowed for things such as production. Despite

1924-590: The Meiji restoration's Shinbutsu bunri , tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed. Japan then closed and shut down tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in the Shrine Consolidation Policy and the Meiji government built the new modern 15 shrines of the Kenmu restoration as a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult. In

1998-495: The Opium Wars. Perry arrived with four warships at Uraga , at the mouth of Edo Bay on July 8, 1853. He blatantly refused Japanese demands that he proceed to Nagasaki, which was the designated port for foreign contact. After threatening to continue directly on to Edo , the nation's capital, and to burn it to the ground if necessary, he was allowed to land at nearby Kurihama on July 14 and to deliver his letter. Such refusal

2072-425: The U.S. sought trade with Japan to open export markets for American goods like gold from California, enable U.S. ships to refuel in Japanese ports, and secure protections and humane treatment for any American sailors shipwrecked on Japan's shores. The growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by

2146-459: The boundaries of the Japanese. He ordered the squadron to survey Edo bay, which led to a stand-off between Japanese officers with swords and Americans with guns. By firing the guns into the water, Perry demonstrated their military might, which greatly affected Japanese perceptions of Perry and the United States. Namely, a perception of fear and disrespect. Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's letter created great controversy within

2220-540: The clearly defined class system which the bakufu had envisaged, partly leading to their eventual downfall. The military of Japan, strengthened by nationwide conscription and emboldened by military success in both the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War , began to view themselves as a growing world power. Besides drastic changes to the social structure of Japan, in an attempt to create

2294-399: The control of a state-appointed governor. If the daimyōs peacefully complied, they were given a prominent voice in the new Meiji government. Later, their debts and payments of samurai stipends were either taxed heavily or turned into bonds which resulted in a large loss of wealth among former samurai. Emperor Meiji announced in his 1868 Charter Oath that "Knowledge shall be sought all over

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2368-417: The entire shogunate/pre- Meiji Restoration era), the "ri" of shuhari was expressed with the kanji 離 . Ri was about four kilometers – specifically, 3,927.6 meters as standardized in the 17th century: 36 cho (町), with each cho measured at 109.9 meters). The ri was a standard unit of far-distance measure just like a kilometer or mile is today. However, as time evolved and a modern Japan emerged, ri came to mean

2442-502: The ex- shōgun ' s army. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under "imperial control", thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government . With Fuhanken sanchisei , the areas were split into three types: urban prefectures ( 府 , fu ) , rural prefectures ( 県 , ken ) and the already existing domains. On March 23 the Dutch Minister-Resident Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek and

2516-412: The help Japan received from other powers, one of the key factors in Japan's industrializing success was its relative lack of resources, which made it unattractive to Western imperialism. The farmer and the samurai classification were the base and soon the problem of why there was a limit of growth within the nation's industrial work. The government sent officials such as the samurai to monitor the work that

2590-596: The highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate. The shōgun himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi , died days after Perry's departure and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada , leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ( rōjū ) led by Abe Masahiro . Abe felt that it was impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of

2664-456: The idea of large distance, but now meaning "to leave or separate away." Aikido master Endō Seishirō shihan stated: "It is known that, when we learn or train in something, we pass through the stages of shu , ha , and ri . These stages are explained as follows. In shu , we repeat the forms and discipline ourselves so that our bodies absorb the forms that our forebears created. We remain faithful to these forms with no deviation. Next, in

2738-406: The international market. With this, industrial zones grew enormously, and there was a massive migration to industrializing centers from the countryside. Industrialization additionally went hand in hand with the development of a national railway system and modern communications. With industrialization came the demand for coal. There was dramatic rise in production, as shown in the table below. Coal

2812-523: The late Edo period (often called the Bakumatsu ) and the beginning of the Meiji era , during which time Japan rapidly industrialized and adopted Western ideas and production methods. In 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan. A year later Perry returned in threatening large warships with the aspiration of concluding a treaty that would open up Japanese ports for trade. Perry concluded

2886-464: The military, the government instituted nationwide conscription in 1873, mandating that every male would serve for four years in the armed forces upon turning 21 years old, followed by three more years in the reserves. One of the primary differences between the samurai and peasant classes was the right to bear arms ; this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. Furthermore, samurai were no longer allowed to walk about town bearing

2960-496: The more traditional practice of imperial rule, whereby the Emperor of Japan serves solely as the spiritual authority of the nation and his ministers govern the nation in his name. The Meiji oligarchy that formed the government under the rule of the Emperor first introduced measures to consolidate their power against the remnants of the Edo period government, the shogunate, daimyōs , and the samurai class. Throughout Japan at

3034-489: The new sectors of the economy could not be heavily taxed, the costs of industrialisation and necessary investments in modernisation heavily fell on the peasant farmers, who paid extremely high land tax rates (about 30 percent of harvests) as compared to the rest of the world (double to seven times of European countries by net agricultural output). In contrast, land tax rates were about 2% in Qing China. The high taxation gave

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3108-416: The oligarchs to action. Whatever their true intentions, the oligarchs embarked on another slow and deliberate process to abolish the samurai class. First, in 1873, it was announced that the samurai stipends were to be taxed on a rolling basis. Later, in 1874, the samurai were given the option to convert their stipends into government bonds . Finally, in 1876, this commutation was made compulsory. To reform

3182-440: The outside. In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade but was sent away. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent with a fleet of warships by U.S. President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. President Fillmore's letter shows

3256-429: The ports being opened for trade, but also began the process of merging members of the different societies together. Examples of this include western teachers and advisors immigrating to Japan and also Japanese nationals moving to western countries for education purposes. All these things in turn played a part in expanding the people of Japan's knowledge on western customs, technology and institutions. Many people believed it

3330-589: The position of an American consul in Japan. The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers. Since the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under

3404-696: The position of the shogun. Debate over foreign policy and popular outrage over perceived appeasement to the foreign powers was a catalyst for the sonnō jōi movement and a shift in political power from Edo back to the Imperial Court in Kyoto . The opposition of Emperor Kōmei to the treaties further lent support to the tōbaku (overthrow the shogunate) movement, and eventually to the Meiji Restoration , which affected all realms of Japanese life. Following this period came an increase in foreign trade,

3478-470: The remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and 2 advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided. Perry returned again on February 11, 1854, with an even larger force of eight warships and made it clear that he would not be leaving until a treaty was signed. Perry continued his manipulation of the setting, such as keeping himself aloof from lower-ranking officials, implying

3552-421: The resultant modernization of Japan, also influenced Japanese self-identity with respect to its Asian neighbours, as Japan became the first Asian state to modernize based on the Western model, replacing the traditional Confucian hierarchical order that had persisted previously under a dominant China with one based on modernity. Adopting enlightenment ideals of popular education, the Japanese government established

3626-403: The samurai class lived on. The oligarchs also embarked on a series of land reforms . In particular, they legitimized the tenancy system which had been going on during the Tokugawa period. Despite the bakufu 's best efforts to freeze the four classes of society in place, during their rule villagers had begun to lease land out to other farmers, becoming rich in the process. This greatly disrupted

3700-499: The shogun, or indeed any of his rōjū , and that it had at least temporarily averted the possibility of immediate military confrontation. Externally, the treaty led to the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce , the "Harris Treaty" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. The Japanese chafed under

3774-455: The shogunate, were persuaded to "return their domains to the Emperor". Other daimyō were subsequently persuaded to do so, thus creating a central government in Japan which exercised direct power through the entire "realm". Some shogunate forces escaped to Hokkaidō , where they attempted to set up a breakaway Republic of Ezo ; however, forces loyal to the Emperor ended this attempt in May 1869 with

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3848-418: The short term, the U.S. was content with the agreement since Perry had achieved his primary objective of breaking Japan's sakoku policy and setting the grounds for protection of American citizens and an eventual commercial agreement. On the other hand, the Japanese were forced into this trade, and many saw it as a sign of weakness. The Tokugawa shogunate could point out that the treaty was not actually signed by

3922-405: The stage of ha , once we have disciplined ourselves to acquire the forms and movements, we make innovations. In this process the forms may be broken and discarded. Finally, in ri , we completely depart from the forms, open the door to creative technique, and arrive in a place where we act in accordance with what our heart/mind desires, unhindered while not overstepping laws." The Shuhari concept

3996-572: The student should loyally follow the instruction of a single teacher; the student is not yet ready to explore and compare different paths. Meiji Restoration The Meiji Restoration ( Japanese : 明治維新 , romanized :  Meiji Ishin ), referred to at the time as the Honorable Restoration ( 御維新 , Goishin ) , and also known as the Meiji Renovation , Revolution , Regeneration , Reform , or Renewal ,

4070-436: The threat of being colonized, bringing to an end the era known as sakoku . The word "Meiji" means "enlightened rule" and the goal was to combine "modern advances" with traditional "eastern" values ( 和魂洋才 , Wakonyosai ) . The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi , Matsukata Masayoshi , Kido Takayoshi , Itagaki Taisuke , Yamagata Aritomo , Mori Arinori , Ōkubo Toshimichi , and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi . The foundation of

4144-404: The time, shōgun Tokugawa Iesada was the de facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor of Japan to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary Hayashi Akira ( 林韑 ) and the text was endorsed subsequently, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Kōmei . The treaty was ratified on February 21, 1855. In

4218-458: The time, the samurai numbered 1.9 million. For comparison, this was more than 10 times the size of the French privileged class before the 1789 French Revolution . Moreover, the samurai in Japan were not merely the lords, but also their higher retainers—people who actually worked. With each samurai being paid fixed stipends, their upkeep presented a tremendous financial burden, which may have prompted

4292-518: The title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun , in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and Satsuma 's forces defeated

4366-616: The treaty that would open up two Japanese ports (Shimoda and Hakodate) only for material support, such as firewood, water, food, and coal for U.S. ships. The Convention of Kanagawa was signed in 1854 and opened up trade between the United States and Japan. Later, Japan reluctantly expanded its trade deals to France, Britain, the Netherlands and Russia due to American pressure. These treaties signed with Western powers came to be known as Unequal Treaties as Japan lost control over its tariffs while Western powers took control over Japanese lands. In 1858, Townsend Harris , ambassador to Japan, concluded

4440-503: The treaty, opening Japanese ports to trade. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that "if we take the initiative, we can dominate; if we do not, we will be dominated", leading Japan to "throw open its doors to foreign technology." After the humiliation of the Unequal Treaties, the leaders of the Meiji Restoration (as this revolution came to be known), acted in the name of restoring imperial rule to strengthen Japan against

4514-512: The use of force, surveying the harbor, and refusing to meet in the designated negotiation sites. Negotiations began on March 8 and proceeded for around one month. Each party shared a performance when Perry arrived. The Americans had a technology demonstration, and the Japanese had a sumo wrestling show. While the new technology awed the Japanese people, Perry was unimpressed by the sumo wrestlers and perceived such performance as foolish and degrading: “This disgusting exhibition did not terminate until

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4588-467: The value they provided in the modernization of Japan, the Japanese government did not consider it prudent for them to settle in Japan permanently. After their contracts ended, most of them returned to their country except some, like Josiah Conder and W. K. Burton . Convention of Kanagawa The Convention of Kanagawa , also known as the Kanagawa Treaty ( 神奈川条約 , Kanagawa Jōyaku ) or

4662-537: The whole twenty-five had, successively, in pairs, displayed their immense powers and savage qualities." The Japanese side gave in to almost all of Perry's demands, with the exception of a commercial agreement modelled after previous American treaties with China, which Perry agreed to defer to a later time. The main controversy centered on the selection of the ports to open, with Perry adamantly rejecting Nagasaki. The treaty, written in English, Dutch, Chinese and Japanese,

4736-749: The world, and thereby the foundations of imperial rule shall be strengthened." Under the leadership of Mori Arinori , a group of prominent Japanese intellectuals went on to form the Meiji Six Society in 1873 to continue to "promote civilization and enlightenment" through modern ethics and ideas. However, during the restoration, political power simply moved from the Tokugawa shogunate to an oligarchy consisting of these leaders, mostly from Satsuma Province ( Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori ), and Chōshū Province ( Itō Hirobumi , Yamagata Aritomo , and Kido Takayoshi). This reflected their belief in

4810-531: Was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji . Although there were ruling emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan . The goals of the restored government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath . The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure and spanned both

4884-553: Was being done. Because of Japan's leaders taking control and adapting Western techniques it has remained one of the world's largest industrial nations. The rapid industrialization and modernization of Japan both allowed and required a massive increase in production and infrastructure. Japan built industries such as shipyards, iron smelters, and spinning mills, which were then sold to well-connected entrepreneurs. Consequently, domestic companies became consumers of Western technology and applied it to produce items that would be sold cheaply in

4958-442: Was essential for Japan to acquire western "spirit" in order to become a great nation with strong trade routes and military strength. The Meiji Restoration accelerated the industrialization process in Japan, which led to its rise as a military power by the year 1895, under the slogan of "Enrich the country, strengthen the military" ( 富国強兵 , fukoku kyōhei ) . There were a few factories set up using imported technologies in

5032-604: Was first presented by Fuhaku Kawakami as Jo-ha-kyū in The Way of Tea, "Sado 茶道". Fuhaku based his process from the works of Zeami Motokiyo , the master of Noh , which then became a part of the philosophy of Aikido . Shuhari can be considered as concentric circles, with Shu within Ha, and both Shu and Ha within Ri. The fundamental techniques and knowledge do not change. During the Shu phase

5106-804: Was good for limiting disease spread, so the Japanese government lifted their attempted ban in May 1875 and promoted cremation for diseased people in 1897. Even before the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa Shogunate government hired German diplomat Philipp Franz von Siebold as diplomatic advisor, Dutch naval engineer Hendrik Hardes for Nagasaki Arsenal and Willem Johan Cornelis, Ridder Huijssen van Kattendijke for Nagasaki Naval Training Center , French naval engineer François Léonce Verny for Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , and British civil engineer Richard Henry Brunton . Most of them were appointed through government approval with two or three years contract, and took their responsibility properly in Japan, except some cases. Then many other foreign specialists were hired. Despite

5180-582: Was intentional, as Perry wrote in his journal: “To show these princes how little I regarded their order for me to depart, on getting on board I immediately ordered the whole squadron underway, not to leave the bay… but to go higher up… would produce a decided influence upon the pride and conceit of the government, and cause a more favorable consideration of the President’s letter." Perry's power front did not stop with refusing to land in Uraga, but he continued to push

5254-480: Was largely composed of former samurai. This sent a strong message to the dissenting samurai that their time was indeed over. There were fewer subsequent samurai uprisings and the distinction became all but a name as the samurai joined the new society. The ideal of samurai military spirit lived on in romanticized form and was often used as propaganda during the early 20th-century wars of the Empire of Japan . However, it

5328-453: Was modernized and some parts of the castles were converted into modern military facilities with barracks and parade grounds, such as Hiroshima Castle . Others were handed over to the civilian authorities to build their new administrative structures. Some however were explicitly saved from destruction by interventions from various persons and parties such as politicians, government and military officials, experts, historians, and locals who feared

5402-443: Was needed for steamships and railroads. The growth of these sectors is shown below. The majority of Japanese castles were partially or completely dismantled in the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the national government. Since the feudal system was abolished and the fiefs ( han ) theoretically reverting to the emperor, the national government saw no further use for the upkeep of these now obsolete castles. The military

5476-405: Was signed on March 31, 1854, at what is now Kaikō Hiroba (Port Opening Square) Yokohama , a site adjacent to the current Yokohama Archives of History . The celebratory events for the signing ceremony included a Kabuki play from the Japanese side and, from the American side, U.S. military band music and blackface minstrelsy . The "Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity" has twelve articles: At

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