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123-588: Bakumatsu ( 幕末 , ' End of the bakufu ' ) were the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended . Between 1853 and 1867, under foreign diplomatic and military pressure, Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and changed from a feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern empire of the Meiji government . The major ideological-political divide during this period

246-582: A Russian sailor was cut to pieces in the streets of Yokohama. In early 1860, two Dutch captains were slaughtered, also in Yokohama. Chinese and native servants of foreigners were also killed. Several missions were sent abroad by the Bakufu, in order to revise the commercial treaties. However, these efforts remained largely unsuccessful. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board

369-683: A bad thing for Japan. In fact, one could even say it was appealing. However, among the senior officials of the Shogunate, there was a trauma from the Nagasaki Harbour Incident . They probably adopted a hardline stance as a result of assuming that Americans were no different from the British." The years 1854–1855 saw a dramatic series of earthquakes, known as the Ansei great earthquakes , with 120 major and minor tremors recorded over

492-663: A base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The incident in Nagasaki Harbour where the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton demanded supplies from the harbour chief in 1808 shocked the Tokugawa government, who ordered the ports to be even more tightly guarded. In 1825, the Edict to expel foreigners at all cost ( 異国船無二念打払令 , Ikokusen Muninen Uchiharairei , "Don't think twice" policy)

615-411: A ceasefire due to the death of the previous shōgun , but the prestige of the shogunate was nevertheless seriously affected. This reversal encouraged the Bakufu to take drastic steps towards modernization. During the last years of the bakufu , or bakumatsu , the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it

738-464: A conflict arose among the shugo daimyo as to whether Yoshimi or Yoshihisa would be the next shogun. The Hatakeyama and Shiba clans were also divided into two opposing factions over succession within their own clans, and Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen , who were father-in-law and son-in-law, were politically at odds with each other. In 1467, these conflicts finally led to the Ōnin War between

861-462: A descendant of the Taira clan , was approached for the position of shogun a month before his death. The shogun's officials were collectively referred to as the bakufu ( 幕府 , IPA: [baꜜkɯ̥ɸɯ] ; "tent government") ; they were the ones who carried out the actual duties of administration, while the imperial court retained only nominal authority. The tent symbolized the shogun's role as

984-454: A fire in 1838, and the family subsequently lived in a villa in the current location of Higashikojima-chō. The two-story wooden villa was built in 1806 and was called "Useirō" (雨声楼). Shūhan spent 1838 to 1842 at this villa, until at the age of 60 when he was appointed as the gunnery instructor in Edo. The villa still existed when the site was designated as a historic site in 1922, but was destroyed in

1107-532: A less than two-year period including the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Tōkai earthquake on 23 December 1854, the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Nankai earthquake occurring the following day, and the 6.9 magnitude 1855 Edo earthquake , which struck what is today modern Tokyo, on 11 November 1855. Shimoda on the Izu Peninsula was struck by the Tōkai earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, and because the port had just been designated as

1230-535: A member of the sekkan family , as the fourth shogun. In 1232, the Goseibai Shikimoku was enacted, the first codified law by a warrior class government in Japan. In 1246, Hojo Tokiyori became the fifth shikken , and in 1252 he installed Prince Munetaka as the sixth shogun. The appointment of a member of the imperial family as shogun made the shogun more and more like a puppet. After retiring from

1353-499: A military instructor for the shogunal forces in 1856. While under house arrest, he changed his opinion on the sakoku policy and after his release was a strong proponent for opening Japan to foreign trade. In 1862, Takashima Shūhan recommended that Japan equip itself with 200 warships in order to repel the foreign naval threat. This led the Shogunate to authorize each domain to manufacture or purchase their own ships in order to reinforce Japan's naval capabilities. He died in 1866 at

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1476-399: A new palace and established four new administrative bodies. However, the nobles who had long been out of politics and the newly appointed samurai were unfamiliar with administrative practices, and the court was unable to handle the drastic increase in lawsuits. Emperor Go-Daigo gave high positions and rewards only to the nobles, and the warriors began to swear allegiance to Ashikaga Takauji, who

1599-500: A raid, defeating many of his enemies, but eventually ran out of strength and was killed. The Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period when Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi were in power. They and Tokugawa Ieyasu are the three unifiers of Japan. The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle, Azuchi Castle , was located in Azuchi, Shiga , and Fushimi Castle , where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement,

1722-519: A target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto Takeaki . The French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki . By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of

1845-487: Is no consensus among the various authors since some sources consider Tajihi no Agatamori the first, others say Ōtomo no Otomaro , other sources assure that the first was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro , while others avoid the problem by just mentioning from the first Kamakura shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo . Originally, the title of sei-i taishōgun ("Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against

1968-674: Is often said that one must be of the Minamoto lineage to become a shogun, but this is not true. While it is true that the Minamoto lineage was respected as a lineage suitable for the position of shogun, the fourth and fifth shoguns of the Kamakura shogunate were from the Fujiwara lineage (although their mothers were from the Minamoto lineage), and the sixth through ninth shoguns were from the imperial lineage. Oda Nobunaga , who claimed to be

2091-492: Is often translated generalissimo and is also used for such military leaders of foreign nations by the Japanese. Though shogun ( 将軍 ) now predominantly refers to the historical position sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 ) in Japanese, this term simply means "a general" in other East Asian languages, such as Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 将军 ; traditional Chinese : 將軍 ; pinyin : jiāngjūn ; Jyutping : zoeng1 gwan1 ). In fact, since sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 )

2214-481: Is the abbreviation of the historical title sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 ): Thus, a literal translation of sei-i taishōgun would be 'Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians'. The term originally referred to the general who commanded the army sent to fight the tribes of northern Japan, but after the twelfth century, the term was used to designate the leader of the samurai . The term

2337-481: The tozama daimyō (or outside lords), and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry . The first related to those lords whose predecessors had fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, after which they had been permanently excluded from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi , or "revere

2460-759: The Kanrin Maru and the USS Powhattan . A First Japanese Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862. A Second Japanese Embassy to Europe would be sent in December 1863, with the mission to obtain European support to reinstate Japan's former closure to foreign trade, and especially stop foreign access to the harbor of Yokohama . The Embassy ended in total failure as European powers did not see any advantages in yielding to its demands. Belligerent opposition to Western influence further erupted into open conflict when

2583-660: The Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the Kankō Maru , which was used for training, and opened the Nagasaki Naval Training Center with Dutch instructors, while a Western-style military school

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2706-518: The Eejanaika . From 1859, the ports of Nagasaki , Hakodate and Yokohama became open to foreign traders as a consequence of the Treaties. Foreigners arrived in Yokohama and Kanagawa in great numbers, giving rise to trouble with the samurai. Violence increased against the foreigners and those who dealt with them. Murders of foreigners and collaborating Japanese soon followed. On 26 August 1859,

2829-500: The Emperor Kōmei , breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued, on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his " Order to expel barbarians " ( 攘夷実行の勅命 , jōi jikkō no chokumei ) . The Mōri clan of Chōshū , under Lord Mōri Takachika , followed on the order, and began to take actions to expel all foreigners from the date fixed as a deadline (May 10, Lunar calendar). Openly defying

2952-562: The Heiji rebellion and became the first samurai-born aristocratic class, eventually becoming daijō-daijin ( 太政大臣 , Chancellor of the Realm) , the highest position of the aristocratic class, and the Taira clan monopolized important positions at the imperial court and wielded power. The seizure of political power by Taira no Kiyomori was the first instance of the warrior class leading politics for

3075-603: The Hōjō clan and kanrei ( 管領 ) of the Hosokawa clan . In addition, Taira no Kiyomori and Toyotomi Hideyoshi were leaders of the warrior class who did not hold the position of shogun, the highest office of the warrior class, yet gained the positions of daijō-daijin ( 太政大臣 , Chancellor of the Realm) and kampaku ( 関白 , Imperial Regent) , the highest offices of the aristocratic class. As such, they ran their governments as its de facto rulers. The office of shogun

3198-570: The Namamugi incident and the murder of the English trader Richardson. The Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima and sunk several ships. Satsuma however later negotiated and paid 25,000 pounds, but did not remit Richardson's killers, and in exchange obtained an agreement by Great Britain to supply steam warships to Satsuma. The conflict actually became the starting point of a close relationship between Satsuma and Great Britain, which became major allies in

3321-541: The Taira clan became Kokushi ( 国司 ) , or overseers of various regions, and accumulated wealth by taking samurai from various regions as their retainers. In the struggle to succeed Emperor Toba, former Emperor Sutoku and Emperor Go-Shirakawa , each with his samurai class on his side, fought the Hōgen rebellion , which was won by Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who had Taira no Kiyomori and Minamoto no Yoshitomo on his side. Later, Taira no Kiyomori defeated Minamoto no Yoshitomo in

3444-644: The Three Sacred Treasures (Imperial regalia , 三種の神器). On the other hand, Ashikaga Takauji installed Emperor Kōmyō as the new emperor without the Three Sacred Treasures in 1336. Ashikaga Takauji tried to make peace with Emperor Go-Daigo, but the negotiations failed when Emperor Go-Daigo refused. Emperor Go-Daigo moved to Yoshino , and the country entered the Nanboku-cho period (1336-1392), in which two emperors existed at

3567-517: The Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed in 1858 and put into application from mid-1859. During the negotiations, Harris had convinced the Japanese negotiators to sign the treaty on the basis it was the best possible terms a Western power would offer. The most important points of the Treaty were: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in the future to

3690-527: The Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) maintained the prohibition on trade but opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American whaling ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda , a seaport on the Izu Peninsula , southwest of Edo. In February 1855, the Russians followed suit with

3813-406: The Treaty of Shimoda . The resulting damage to the shogunate was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the shogunate. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai daimyō , had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyō , further undermining the already weakened bakufu . In

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3936-717: The Wyoming suffered extensive damage with fourteen crew dead or wounded. On the heels of McDougal's engagement, two weeks later a French landing force of two warships, the Tancrède and the Dupleix , and 250 men under Captain Benjamin Jaurès swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement. In August 1863, the Bombardment of Kagoshima took place, in retaliation for

4059-558: The barbarians with their own methods". After 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason ( Bansha no goku ), put under house arrest ( Takashima Shūhan ), forced to commit ritual suicide ( Watanabe Kazan , Takano Chōei ), or even assassinated as in the case of Sakuma Shōzan . When Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) in July 1853,

4182-403: The daimyo of various regions fought to expand their own power. Daimyo who became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were called sengoku daimyo ( 戦国大名 ) , and they often came from shugo daimyo , shugodai ( 守護代 , deputy shugo) , and kokujin or kunibito ( 国人 , local masters) . In other words, sengoku daimyo differed from shugo daimyo in that sengoku daimyo

4305-806: The shōgun already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru , which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War , under the command of Admiral Enomoto . A French Military Mission to Japan was established to help modernize the armies of the Bakufu . Japan sent a delegation to and participated in the 1867 World Fair in Paris. Bakufu Shogun ( English: / ˈ ʃ oʊ ɡ ʌ n / SHOH -gun ; Japanese : 将軍 , romanized :  shōgun , pronounced [ɕoːɡɯɴ] ), officially sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 , " Commander-in-Chief of

4428-515: The 12 year old Tokugawa Iemochi as shōgun whom it was perceived Tairō Ii Naosuke would have influence over, ultimately placing Nariaki and Yoshinobu under house arrest, and executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu) known as the Ansei Purge . Tairō Ii Naosuke , who had signed

4551-457: The 13th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiteru , the shogun already had few direct fiefs and direct military forces, and his sphere of influence was limited to a few lands around Kyoto, losing both economic and military power. As a result, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was often chased out of Kyoto by the sengoku daimyo Miyoshi Nagayoshi and his forces, and was finally killed in an attack by the forces of Miyoshi Yoshitsugu and Matsunaga Hisahide . Ashikaga Yoshiteru

4674-486: The 5th shogun, died of illness at the age of 19, so the 6th shogun was chosen from among Yoshimochi's four brothers, and to ensure fairness, a lottery was held. The sixth shogun was Ashikaga Yoshinori . However, he was not educated to be a shogun, and his temperamental and despotic behavior caused resentment, and he was assassinated by Akamatsu Mitsusuke during the Kakitsu Rebellion . This led to instability in

4797-458: The Ashikaga shogunate system. Ashikaga Yoshimasa , the 8th shogun, tried to strengthen the power of the shogun, but his close associates did not follow his instructions, leading to political chaos and increasing social unrest. Since he had no sons, he tried to install his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshimi as the ninth shogun, but when his wife Hino Tomiko gave birth to Ashikaga Yoshihisa ,

4920-520: The Barbarians") was given to military commanders during the early Heian period for the duration of military campaigns against the Emishi , who resisted the governance of the Kyoto -based imperial court. Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811) was a Japanese general who fought against the Emishi tribes of northern Japan (settled in the territory that today integrates the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa). Tamarumaro

5043-524: The Eastern Army, led by Hosokawa Katsumoto and including Hatakeyama Masanaga , Shiba Yoshitoshi, and Ashikaga Yoshimi, and the Western Army, led by Yamana Sōzen and including Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, and Ashikaga Yoshihisa.　In 1469, the war spread to the provinces, but in 1473, Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, the leaders of both armies, were dead, and in 1477, the war ended when

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5166-545: The Emperor, expel the barbarians". The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi when pro-shogunate forces were defeated. Frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and the trade with China . They were hoping for Japan to become

5289-538: The Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians") , was the title of the military rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor , shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, except during parts of the Kamakura period and Sengoku period when the shoguns themselves were figureheads, with real power in the hands of the shikken ( 執権 ) of

5412-599: The Fujiwara regime. Taira no Masakado , who rose to prominence in the early 10th century, was the first of the local warrior class to revolt against the imperial court. He had served Fujiwara no Tadahira as a young man, but eventually won a power struggle within the Taira clan and became a powerful figure in the Kanto region . In 939, Fujiwara no Haruaki , a powerful figure in the Hitachi province , fled to Masakado. He

5535-761: The Harris Treaty and tried to eliminate opposition to Westernization with the Ansei Purge , was himself murdered in March 1860 in the Sakuradamon incident . A servant of the French Minister was attacked at the end of 1860. On 14 January 1861, Henry Heusken , Secretary to the American mission, was attacked and murdered. On 5 July 1861, a group of samurai attacked the British Legation, resulting in two deaths. During this period, about one foreigner

5658-589: The Netherlands and the United States, planned an armed reaction against Japanese acts of violence against the citizens with the Bombardment of Shimonoseki. The Allied intervention occurred in September 1864, combining the naval forces of the four nations, against the powerful daimyō Mōri Takachika of the Chōshū Domain based in Shimonoseki , Japan. This conflict proved inopportune for America, which in 1864,

5781-480: The Realm) , reaching their peak at the end of the 10th century under Fujiwara no Michinaga and Fujiwara no Yorimichi . Later, in the mid-11th century, Emperor Go-Sanjo weakened the power of the sesshō and kampaku by presiding over politics himself, and when the next emperor, Shirakawa , abdicated and became a cloistered emperor and began a cloistered rule , the sesshō and kampaku lost their real political authority and became nominal, effectively ending

5904-691: The Satsuma Domain. The Shōhei Maru was built from 1853 to 1854 at Sakurajima in what is now Kagoshima Prefecture in accordance with a Dutch blueprint. Furthermore, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments also commenced soon afterwards in order to build modern cannons. A reverbatory furnace was established by Egawa Hidetatsu in Nirayama to cast cannons. The American fleet returned in 1854. The chairman of

6027-489: The Southern court, ending the 58-year Nanboku-cho period. Yoshimitsu continued to hold power after passing the shogunate to his son Ashikaga Yoshimochi in 1395, becoming daijō-daijin ( 太政大臣 , Chancellor of the Realm) , the highest rank of the nobility, and remaining in power until his death in 1408. In 1428, Ashikaga Yoshimochi , the fourth shogun, was ill and the question of his succession arose. Ashikaga Yoshikazu ,

6150-485: The Taira clan from Kyoto, and although initially welcomed by the hermit Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he became estranged and isolated due to the disorderly military discipline and lack of political power under his command. He staged a coup, overthrew the emperor's entourage, and became the first of the Minamoto clan to assume the office of Sei-i Taishōgun (shogun) . In response, Minamoto no Yoritomo sent Minamoto no Noriyori and Minamoto no Yoshitsune to defeat Yoshinaka, who

6273-649: The Tokugawa government. A national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign incursions. Some such as Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the foreigners' techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō  [ jp ] argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced. Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of "Western knowledge" and "Eastern morality" would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan , in view of "controlling

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6396-514: The United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce ) on August 26, and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan ) on October 9). Trading houses were quickly set up in the open ports. The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment rose, as well as inflation . Coincidentally, major famines also increased

6519-482: The United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Several foreign nations soon followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties , with the United States ( Harris Treaty ) on July 29, 1858, the Netherlands ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan ) on August 18, Russia ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan ) August 19,

6642-563: The Westerners at bay, and that radical modernization, especially that of artillery, was needed to be able to resist. Takashima Shūhan established two companies of infantry equipped with guns, as well as one artillery battery, making him Japan's first modern student of Western arms. In 1841, Takashima Shūhan caught the attention of Bakufu official Egawa Tarōzaemon . Takashima made a demonstration with 125 men, using Dutch Rangaku textbooks and Dutch commands for drilling. He demonstrated

6765-583: The age of 69. His grave is at the temple of Daien-ji in Bunkyō , Tokyo, and was designated a National Historic Site in 1943. The site of the house where Takashima Shūhan lived in Nagasaki is preserved as a National Historic Site . The main residence of the Takashima family was built in Ōmura-chō (present-day Banzai-chō) by Shuho's father, Takashima Shirobei Shigenori, but it was completely burned down in

6888-408: The areas they controlled. The shugo shared their newfound wealth with the local samurai, creating a hierarchical relationship between the shugo and the samurai, and the first early daimyo ( 大名 , feudal lords) , called shugo daimyo ( 守護大名 ) , appeared. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , the third shogun, negotiated peace with the Southern court, and in 1392 he reunited the two courts by absorbing

7011-407: The common people, he rapidly expanded his power, defeating a series of sengoku daimyo and armed Buddhist temple forces to unify the central part of Japan. Takashima Sh%C5%ABhan Takashima was the son of one of the senior administrators of Nagasaki and head of the Nagasaki Kaisho, the shogunate's official trade representative with the Dutch trading post at Dejima . The Takashima family

7134-441: The crises by debasing the gold content of its coins by two thirds, so as to match foreign gold-silver exchange ratios. Foreigners also brought cholera to Japan, leading to hundreds of thousands of deaths. Hotta lost the support of key Daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu , rejected Hotta's request which resulted in

7257-463: The effect that the ports are to be closed and the foreigners driven out, because the people of the country do not desire intercourse with foreign countries. Edward Neale , the head of the British Legation, responded on very strong terms, equating the move with a declaration of war: It is, in fact, a declaration of war by Japan itself against the whole of the Treaty Powers, and the consequences of which, if not at once arrested, it will have to expiate by

7380-434: The ensuing Boshin War . From the start, the Satsuma Province had generally been in favour of the opening and modernization of Japan. Although the Namamugi Incident was seen as unfortunate, it was taken not to be characteristic of Satsuma's policy, and was instead branded as an example of anti-foreign sonnō jōi sentiment, as a justification to a strong Western show of force. Naval forces from Great Britain , France ,

7503-438: The first shikken ( 執権 , Regent) and assuming actual control of the shogunate. Hojo Yoshitoki later assassinated Minamoto no Yoriie. However, Hojo Tokimasa lost influence in 1204 when he killed Hatakeyama Shigetada , believing false information that his son-in-law Shigetada was about to rebel, and lost his position in 1205 when he tried to install his son-in-law Hiraga Tomomasa as the fourth shogun. Hojo Yoshitoki became

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7626-492: The forces of Emperor Go-Daigo, turned to the emperor's side and attacked Rokuhara Tandai . Then, in 1333, Nitta Yoshisada invaded Kamakura and the Kamakura shogunate fell, and the Hōjō clan was destroyed. Around 1334–1336, Ashikaga Takauji helped Emperor Go-Daigo regain his throne in the Kenmu Restoration . Emperor Go-Daigo rejected cloistered rule and the shogunate and abolished the sesshō and kampaku in favour of an emperor-led government. He also began building

7749-399: The growing fame of Ashikaga Takauji and ordered Nitta Yoshisada and others to defeat Ashikaga Takauji. In response, Takauji led a group of samurai against the new government and defeated the imperial court forces. This ended Emperor Go-Daigo's new regime in 1336 after only two years. After the failure of the Kenmu Restoration, Emperor Go-Daigo fled to Enryaku-ji Temple on Mount Hiei with

7872-416: The harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns , capable of destroying buildings by delivering explosive shells at high velocity. In response to the Perry Expedition and increasing incursions of foreign warships into Japanese territorial waters, several modern sailing frigates, including Shōhei Maru and Asahi Maru , were constructed on orders of the Tokugawa shogunate by

7995-407: The harbour of Hyōgo in November 1865. Other displays of force were made by foreign forces, until the Emperor finally agreed to change his total opposition to the Treaties, by formally allowing the shōgun to handle negotiations with foreign powers. An agreements providing for the tariff revision was signed in June 1866. These conflicts led to the realization that head-on conflict with Western nations

8118-491: The head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki , who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school —based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, and the turning back of the West. Japanese historian Motohiko Izawa stated in his book, "The United States simply aimed to conduct business, which wasn't

8241-422: The help of samurai called gokenin ( 御家人 ) , lords in the service of the shogunate. However, since the war was a war of national defense and no new territory was gained, the shogunate was unable to adequately reward the gokenin , and their dissatisfaction with the shogunate grew. In 1285, during the reign of Hojo Sadatoki , the ninth shikken and eighth tokusō , Adachi Yasumori and his clan, who had been

8364-423: The imperial court was in charge of politics. From the mid-9th century to the mid-11th century, the Fujiwara clan controlled political power. They excluded other clans from the political center and monopolized the highest positions in the court, such as sesshō ( 摂政 , Imperial Regent for Minor Emperors) , kampaku ( 関白 , Imperial Regent fo Adult Emperors) , and daijō-daijin ( 太政大臣 , Chancellor of

8487-404: The intervention at Shimonoseki, foreign nations agreed to reduce the amount in exchange for a ratification of the Harris Treaty by the Emperor, a lowering of customs tariffs to a uniform 5%, and the opening of the harbours of Hyōgo (modern Kōbe ) and Osaka to foreign trade. In order to press their demands more forcefully, a squadron of four British, one Dutch and three French warships were sent to

8610-401: The introduction of Western technology and who were also fearful of the tozama feudal domains increasing in military strength. He was placed under house arrest from 1846 to 1853, but on allegations of mismanagement of the Nagasaki Kaisho and smuggling, rather than sedition or treason. Takasaki had a very strong enmity with the Nagasaki bugyō , who had always been jealous that the position

8733-441: The intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay , and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain , all southern domains mostly exposed to Western intrusions. These domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverberatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms. Following the Morrison incident involving the Morrison under Charles W. King in 1837, Egawa Hidetatsu

8856-713: The intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay , and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain , both southern domains exposed to Western intrusions. In 1840, Takashima was made a toshiyori , or Senior Administrator, for the city of Nagasaki . From 1840, following the outbreak of the Opium War in China , Takashima appealed to the Shogunate to reinforce Japan's military capabilities. The war in China had made clear that traditional ways were not sufficient to keep

8979-424: The main vassals of the Kamakura shogunate, were destroyed by Taira no Yoritsuna, further strengthening the ruling system of the tokusō , which emphasized blood relations. As tokusō's ruling system was strengthened, the power of the title of naikanrei ( 内管領 ) , tokusō' s chief retainer, increased, and when tokusō was young or incapacitated, naikanrei took control of the shogunate. Taira no Yoritsuna during

9102-510: The military's field commander but also denoted that such an office was meant to be temporary. Nevertheless, the institution, known in English as the shogunate ( / ˈ ʃ oʊ ɡ ə n eɪ t / SHOH -gə-nayt ), persisted for nearly 700 years, ending when Tokugawa Yoshinobu relinquished the office to Emperor Meiji in 1867 as part of the Meiji Restoration . The term shogun ( 将軍 , lit.   ' army commander ' )

9225-544: The morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the Pembroke , the U.S. frigate USS Wyoming under Captain McDougal sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned fleet. For almost two hours before withdrawing, McDougal sank one Japanese vessel and severely damaged the other two, along with some forty Japanese casualties, while

9348-559: The next 700 years. However, when Taira no Kiyomori used his power to have the child of his daughter Taira no Tokuko and Emperor Takakura installed as Emperor Antoku , there was widespread opposition. Prince Mochihito , no longer able to assume the imperial throne, called upon the Minamoto clan to raise an army to defeat the Taira clan, and the Genpei War began. In the midst of the Genpei War, Minamoto no Yoshinaka expelled

9471-475: The political system he developed with a succession of shoguns as the head became known as a shogunate. Hojo Masako 's (Yoritomo's wife) family, the Hōjō , seized power from the Kamakura shoguns. In 1199, Yoritomo died suddenly at the age of 53, and the 18-year-old Minamoto no Yoriie took over as second shogun. To support the young Yoriie, the decisions of the shogunate were made by a 13-man council, including Hojo Tokimasa and his son Hojo Yoshitoki , but this

9594-405: The prevailing theory was that the year was 1185, when Yoritomo established the shugo ( 守護 ) , which controlled military and police power in various regions, and the jitō ( 地頭 ) , which was in charge of tax collection and land administration. Japanese history textbooks as of 2016 do not specify a specific year for the beginning of the Kamakura period, as there are various theories about

9717-423: The price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners and the Japanese. Japan's monetary system, based on Tokugawa coinage , also broke down. Traditionally, Japan's exchange rate between gold and silver was 1:5, whereas international rates were of the order of 1:15. This led to massive purchases of gold by foreigners, and ultimately forced the Japanese authorities to devalue their currency. There

9840-406: The prospective location for a US consulate, some construed the natural disasters as demonstration of the displeasure of the gods. As the earthquakes were blamed by many Japanese on a giant catfish ( Namazu ) thrashing about, Ukiyo-e prints depicting namazu became very popular during this time. Following the nomination of Townsend Harris as the U.S. Consul in 1856 and two years of negotiation,

9963-450: The reign of Hojo Sadatoki, and Nagasaki Takatsuna and Nagasaki Takasuke during the reign of Hojo Takatoki , the fourteenth shikken and ninth tokusō , were naikanrei who took control of the Kamakura shogunate. 　In other words, Japanese politics was a multiple puppet structure: Emperor, shogun, shikken, tokusō, and naikanrei. In response to gokenin' s dissatisfaction with the shogunate, Emperor Go-Daigo planned to raise an army against

10086-416: The resignation of himself, and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shōgun died without an heir , Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shōgun , a reformist candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyōs . The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing

10209-637: The revolt, which ended with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865. In the Kinmon Incident on 20 August 1864, troops from Chōshū Domain attempted to take control of Kyoto and the Imperial Palace in order to pursue the objective of Sonnō Jōi . This also led to a punitive expedition by the Tokugawa government, the First Chōshū expedition . As the Bakufu proved incapable to pay the $ 3,000,000 indemnity demanded by foreign nations for

10332-773: The same time in two different imperial courts, the Southern Court in Yoshino and the Northern Court in Kyoto. In 1338, Ashikaga Takauji , like Minamoto no Yoritomo, a descendant of the Minamoto princes, was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun by Emperor Kōmyō and established the Ashikaga shogunate , which nominally lasted until 1573. The Ashikaga had their headquarters in the Muromachi district of Kyoto, and

10455-531: The second shikken , and the shogunate was administered under the leadership of Hojo Masako . In 1219, the third shogun, Minamoto no Sanetomo, was assassinated for unknown reasons. In 1221, war broke out for the first time in Japan between the warrior class government and the imperial court, and in this battle, known as the Jōkyū War , the shogunate defeated former Emperor Go-Toba . The shogunate exiled former Emperor Go-Toba to Oki Island for waging war against

10578-591: The senior councillors, Abe Masahiro , was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security , Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors, who wanted to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor, who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the feudal daimyō rulers, who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe compromised by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854,

10701-728: The severest and most merited chastisement American influence, which had been of high importance in the beginning, waned after 1861 due to the advent of the American Civil War (1861–1865) that monopolized all available U.S. resources. This influence would be replaced by that of the British, the Dutch and the French. The two ringleaders of the opposition to the bakufu were from the Satsuma (present day Kagoshima prefecture) and Chōshū (present-day Yamaguchi prefecture) provinces, two of

10824-563: The shikkens, he used his position as head of the Hojo clan's main family, tokusō ( 得宗 ) , to dominate politics, thus shifting the source of power in the shogunate from the shikken to tokusō . During the reign of Hojo Tokimune , the eighth shikken and seventh tokusō , the shogunate twice defeated the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1274 and 1281. The shogunate defeated the Mongols with

10947-462: The shogun a puppet of the Hosokawa clan . Hosokawa Takakuni , who came to power later, installed Ashikaga Yoshiharu as the 12th shogun in 1521. In 1549, Miyoshi Nagayoshi banished the 12th shogun and his son Ashikaga Yoshiteru from Kyoto and seized power. From this point on, the Miyoshi clan continued to hold power in and around Kyoto until Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in 1568. By the time of

11070-423: The shogunate was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed, and threatened to open fire if the Japanese refused to negotiate. He gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to attack several buildings around

11193-507: The shogunate, Mōri ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait . Under pressure from the Emperor, the Shogun was also forced to issue a declaration promulgating the end of relations with foreigners. The order was forwarded to foreign legations by Ogasawara Zusho no Kami on June 24, 1863: The orders of the Tycoon , received from Kyoto , are to

11316-413: The shogunate, but his plan was leaked and he was exiled to Oki Island in 1331. In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from Oki Island and again called on gokenin and samurai to raise an army against the shogunate. Kusunoki Masashige was the first to respond to the call, sparking a series of rebellions against the shogunate in various places. Ashikaga Takauji , who had been ordered by the shogunate to suppress

11439-509: The shogunate. The shogunate learned its lesson and set up an administrative body in Kyoto called the Rokuhara Tandai ( 六波羅探題 ) to oversee the imperial court and western Japan. After the sudden death of Hojo Yoshitoki in 1224, Hojo Yasutoki became the third shikken , and after the death of Hojo Masako in 1225, the administration of the shogunate returned to a council system. In 1226, Hojo Yasutoki installed Kujo Yoritsune ,

11562-635: The strongest tozama anti-shogunate domains in Edo-period Japan. Satsuma military leaders Saigō Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi were brought together with Katsura Kogoro of Chōshū, notably through the efforts of Sakamoto Ryōma . As the former happened to be directly involved in the murder of Richardson, and the latter in the attacks on foreign shipping in Shimonoseki, and as the bakufu declared itself unable to placate them, Allied forces decided to mount direct military expeditions. In

11685-409: The term bakufu to the shogunate government was therefore heavy with symbolism, connoting both the explicitly military character of the shogunal regime and its (at least theoretically) ephemeral nature. Historically, similar terms to sei-i taishōgun were used with varying degrees of responsibility, although none of them had equal or more importance than sei-i taishōgun . Some of them were: There

11808-462: The time during which they ruled is also known as the Muromachi period . Between 1346 and 1358, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of the shugo ( 守護 ) , the local military and police officials established by the Kamakura shogunate, giving the shugo jurisdiction over land disputes between gokenin ( 御家人 ) and allowing the shugo to receive half of all taxes from

11931-399: The use of four cannons and 50 Western guns. His students included Egawa Hidekatsu . In 1843, Takashima was vindicated, as the shogunate authorized the usage of Western guns for defenses. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverbatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms. Takashima's school was heavily criticized by reactionary political forces within the shogunate, who opposed

12054-458: The western lords, including Hatakeyama Yoshinari and Ōuchi Masahiro , withdrew their armies from Kyoto. The war devastated Kyoto, destroying many aristocratic and samurai residences, Shinto shrines , and Buddhist temples, and undermining the authority of the Ashikaga shoguns, greatly reducing their control over the various regions. Thus began the Sengoku period , a period of civil war in which

12177-431: The year the Kamakura shogunate was established. Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the central government and aristocracy and by 1192 established a feudal system based in Kamakura in which the private military, the samurai , gained some political powers while the Emperor and the aristocracy remained the de jure rulers. In 1192, Yoritomo was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun by Emperor Go-Toba and

12300-447: Was a massive outflow of gold from Japan, as foreigners rushed to exchange their silver for "token" silver Japanese coinage and again exchange these against gold, giving a 200% profit to the transaction. In 1860, about 4 million ryōs thus left Japan, that is about 70 tons of gold. This effectively destroyed Japan's gold standard system, and forced it to return to weight-based system with International rates. The Bakufu instead responded to

12423-405: Was able to rule the region on his own, without being appointed by the shogun. In 1492, Hosokawa Masamoto , the kanrei ( 管領 ) , second in rank to the shogun in the Ashikaga shogunate, and the equivalent of Shikken ( 執権 ) in the Kamakura shogunate, staged a coup, banished the 10th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshitane , from Kyoto, and installed Ashikaga Yoshizumi as the 11th shogun, making

12546-493: Was already torn by its own civil war . Following these successes against the imperial movement in Japan, the shogunate was able to reassert a certain level of primacy at the end of 1864. The traditional policy of sankin-kōtai was reinstated, and remnants of the rebellions of 1863–64 as well as the Shishi movement were brutally suppressed throughout the land. The military interventions by foreign powers also proved that Japan

12669-409: Was between the pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi and the shogunate forces, which included the elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of bakumatsu to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent: first, growing resentment on the part of

12792-518: Was effectively dismantled shortly afterwards when one of the key members lost his political position and two others died of illness. When Minamoto no Yoriie fell ill in 1203, a power struggle broke out between the Hojo clan and Hiki Yoshikazu , and Hojo Tokimasa destroyed the Hiki clan . Tokimasa then installed the 12-year-old Minamoto no Sanetomo as the third shogun, puppeting him while himself becoming

12915-510: Was established at Edo. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the Kanrin Maru . Scientific knowledge grew swiftly from the existing foundation of Western learning ( rangaku ("Dutch learning") ). Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening shogunate councils to the tozama daimyō , and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864). At

13038-476: Was in practice hereditary, although over the course of the history of Japan several different clans held the position. The title was originally held by military commanders during the Heian period in the eighth and ninth centuries. When Minamoto no Yoritomo gained political ascendency over Japan in 1185, the title was revived to regularize his position, making him the first shogun in the usually understood sense. It

13161-516: Was independent of the imperial court and called himself the Shinnō ( 新皇 , New Emperor) . In response, the imperial court sent a large army led by Taira no Sadamori to kill Masakado. As a result, Masakado was killed in battle in February 940. He is still revered as one of the three great onryō ( 怨霊 , vengeful spirits) of Japan. During the reigns of Emperor Shirakawa and Emperor Toba ,

13284-637: Was issued by the shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners; it remained in place until 1842. Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through rangaku ("Western studies"). To reinforce Japan's capability to carry on the orders to repel Westerners, some such as the Nagasaki -based Takashima Shūhan managed to obtain weapons through the Dutch at Dejima , such as field guns, mortars and firearms . Domains sent students to learn from Takashima in Nagasaki, from Satsuma Domain after

13407-468: Was killed every month. The Richardson Affair occurred in September 1862, forcing foreign nations to take decisive action in order to protect foreigners and guarantee the implementation of Treaty provisions. In May 1863, the US legation in Edo was torched. During the 1860s, peasant uprisings and urban disturbances multiplied. A "World renewal" movement appeared, as well as religious festivals and protests such as

13530-408: Was killed within a year of becoming shogun. In 1185, the Taira clan was finally defeated in the Battle of Dan-no-ura , and the Minamoto clan came to power. There are various theories as to the year in which the Kamakura period and Kamakura shogunate began. In the past, the most popular theory was that the year was 1192, when Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 ) . Later,

13653-481: Was known as a great swordsman and was a student of Tsukahara Bokuden , who was known as one of the strongest swordsmen. According to Yagyū Munenori , a swordsmanship instructor in the Tokugawa Shogunate, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was one of the five best swordsmen of his time. According to several historical books, including Luís Fróis ' Historia de Japam , he fought hard with naginata and tachi during

13776-572: Was located in Momoyama. Although the two leaders of the warrior class during this period were not given the title of sei-i taishōgun ( 征夷大将軍 , shogun) , Oda Nobunaga was given a title almost equal to it, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi a higher one. This era began when Oda Nobunaga expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto and destroyed the Ashikaga shogunate. Adopting an innovative military strategy using tanegashima ( 種子島 , matchlock gun) and an economic policy that encouraged economic activity by

13899-532: Was no military match against the Allies. The sonnō jōi movement thus lost its initial impetus. The structural weaknesses of the Bakufu however remained an issue, and the focus of opposition would then shift to creating a strong government under a single authority. On 2 May 1864, the Mito rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate in the name of the sonnō jōi . The Shogunate managed to send an army to quell

14022-506: Was not a solution for Japan. As the Bakufu continued its modernization efforts, Western daimyōs (especially from Satsuma and Chōshū) also continued to modernize intensively in order to build a stronger Japan and to establish a more legitimate government under Imperial power. The shogunate led a second punitive expedition against Chōshū from June 1866, but the shogunate was defeated by the more modern and better organized troops of Chōshū. The new shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu managed to negotiate

14145-459: Was originally a specific type of general, this is an example of semantic widening . The shogunate's administration was known as the bakufu ( 幕府 ) , literally meaning "government from the curtain ". In this context, "curtain" is a synecdoche for a type of semi-open tent called a maku , a temporary battlefield headquarters from which a samurai general would direct his forces, and whose sides would be decorated with his mon . The application of

14268-468: Was put in charge of establishing the defense of Tokyo Bay against Western intrusions in 1839. After the humiliating defeat suffered by Qing China in the First and Second Opium Wars , many Japanese officials realized that their traditional methods would be no match for western powers. To deal with Western powers on equal terms, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to

14391-464: Was regarded as one of the four leading families in Nagasaki, and for generations they held administrative power in the town as town elders. The Takashima clan claimed descent as a cadet branch of the Sasaki clan . At age ten, Takashima Shūhan was shocked by the incident in Nagasaki in 1808, where the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton demanded supplies from the harbour chief before sailing away. He

14514-460: Was sent to Osaka for studies, and succeeded his father in 1814. Takashima started to study Western weaponry and, after the 1825 Edict to expel foreigners at all cost ("Don't think twice" policy, 異国船無二念打払令), managed to obtain some weapons through the Dutch, including field guns, mortars and firearms . The guns were known in Japan as Geweer (gun in Dutch) from the 1840s. At the time, Nagasaki

14637-521: Was the first general to bend these tribes, integrating their territory to that of the Yamato State . For his military feats he was named sei-i taishōgun and probably because he was the first to win the victory against the northern tribes he is generally recognized as the first shogun in history. (Note: according to historical sources Ōtomo no Otomaro also had the title of sei-i taishōgun). The shoguns of this period had no real political power, and

14760-532: Was the only point of contact between Japan and the Western nations due to the Tokugawa shogunate's national isolation policy . Takashima was shocked to find the difference between Japanese and Western technology, especially in terms of weapons. Takashima set up an artillery foundry at his own expense based on Dutch designs in 1834, and present a bronze mortar to Nabeshima Shigeyoshi, daimyō of Saga Domain in 1835. Various domains sent students to learn from Takashima. They included samurai from Satsuma Domain after

14883-562: Was very lucrative, comparable to that of a 100,000 koku daimyō , and this was exploited by the rōjū Mizuno Tadakuni , who was concerned that Takashima's plans to manufacture bronze cannon would hinder the production of coinage which was under his purvey. Takashima was sent to Oshi Domain in Musashi Province , but returned to official favor with the arrival of the Perry Expedition in 1853, after which he became

15006-471: Was wanted for tyranny by Fujiwara no Korechika , a Kokushi ( 国司 , imperial court official) who oversaw the province of Hitachi province, and Fujiwara no Korechika demanded that Masakado hand over Fujiwara no Haruaki. Masakado refused, and war broke out between Masakado and Fujiwara no Korechika, with Masakado becoming an enemy of the imperial court. Masakado proclaimed that the Kanto region under his rule

15129-486: Was willing to give up his personal fortune to give them such rewards. During the Kenmu Restoration, after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, another short-lived shogun arose. Prince Moriyoshi (Morinaga), son of Go-Daigo, was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun . However, Prince Moriyoshi was later put under house arrest and, in 1335, killed by Ashikaga Tadayoshi . Emperor Go-daigo did not like

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