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80-499: Its primary product was tankers , but the company built many types of ships over its 70-year history. During World War II , it participated in the U.S. Government's Emergency Shipbuilding Program . The company was also part of the U.S. aerospace industry during the Cold War ; it built various propulsion research & development structures , including the largest U.S. rocket test chamber, for Aerojet General in 1963. The company

160-453: A combustion chamber of a jet engine . It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating emissions . Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with rising pressure, the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At

240-410: A book by William Davies , an early tanker captain, was published in 1903, although Davies had printed earlier versions himself. Including his calculations on the expansion and contraction of bulk oil, and other information for tanker officers, it went into multiple editions, and in 1915 The Petroleum World commented that it was "the standard book for computations and conversions." Gas This

320-538: A comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter, see list of states of matter . The only chemical elements that are stable diatomic homonuclear molecular gases at STP are hydrogen (H 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ), and two halogens : fluorine (F 2 ) and chlorine (Cl 2 ). When grouped with the monatomic noble gases – helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) – these gases are referred to as "elemental gases". The word gas

400-425: A container of gas, the term pressure (or absolute pressure) refers to the average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container. Within this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top). The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of

480-456: A contract to build 30 of the C4 ships. MARCOM prioritized Sun's expertise in building urgently needed T2-SE-A1 tankers and withdrew 20 C4s from Sun and assigned them to Kaiser's Richmond, California yard. The Sun ships, designated C4-S-B2, became War Shipping Administration troopships operated by commercial agents or Navy hospital ships. Sun continued as a merchant shipbuilder after the war, but sold

560-415: A corresponding change in kinetic energy . For example: Imagine you have a sealed container of a fixed-size (a constant volume), containing a fixed-number of gas particles; starting from absolute zero (the theoretical temperature at which atoms or molecules have no thermal energy, i.e. are not moving or vibrating), you begin to add energy to the system by heating the container, so that energy transfers to

640-473: A greater number of particles (transition from gas to plasma ). Finally, all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different thermodynamic processes by adjusting

720-585: A new casino then named "Harrah's Chester" opened on the Sun Ship site and after a rename in May 2012 is currently in operation as " Harrah's Philadelphia ". Category: Ships built by the Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Company 39°50′56″N 75°21′05″W  /  39.84898°N 75.351409°W  / 39.84898; -75.351409 Tanker (ship) A tanker (or tank ship or tankship )

800-471: A number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system. Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies. The equation of state for an ideal or perfect gas

880-433: A relatively new concept, dating from the later years of the 19th century. Before this, technology had simply not supported the idea of carrying bulk liquids. The market was also not geared towards transporting or selling cargo in bulk, therefore most ships carried a wide range of different products in different holds and traded outside fixed routes. Liquids were usually loaded in casks—hence the term " tonnage ", which refers to

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960-735: A single product or simultaneously transport mixed cargoes such as several different chemicals or refined petroleum products. Among oil tankers, supertankers are designed for transporting oil around the Horn of Africa from the Middle East . The supertanker Seawise Giant , scrapped in 2010, was 458 meters (1,503 ft) in length and 69 meters (226 ft) wide. Supertankers are one of the three preferred methods for transporting large quantities of oil, along with pipeline transport and rail . Tighter regulation means that tankers now cause fewer environmental disasters resulting from oil spills than in

1040-479: A solid can only increase its internal energy by exciting additional vibrational modes, as the crystal lattice structure prevents both translational and rotational motion. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range (wider distribution of speeds) with a higher average or mean speed. The variance of this distribution is due to the speeds of individual particles constantly varying, due to repeated collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by

1120-424: A system at equilibrium. 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases. However, volume itself --- not specific --- is an extensive property. The symbol used to represent density in equations is ρ (rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term

1200-790: A variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see § Ideal and perfect gas section below). Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain permanently charged ions are known as plasmas . Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although

1280-632: A variety of pure gases. What distinguishes gases from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles . This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper-temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention. High-density atomic gases super-cooled to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either Bose gases or Fermi gases . For

1360-555: Is a ship designed to transport or store liquids or gases in bulk . Major types of tankship include the oil tanker (or petroleum tanker ), the chemical tanker , cargo ships , and a gas carrier . Tankers also carry commodities such as vegetable oils, molasses and wine. In the United States Navy and Military Sealift Command , a tanker used to refuel other ships is called an oiler (or replenishment oiler if it can also supply dry stores) but many other navies use

1440-425: Is a combination of a finite set of possible motions including translation, rotation, and vibration . This finite range of possible motions, along with the finite set of molecules in the system, leads to a finite number of microstates within the system; we call the set of all microstates an ensemble . Specific to atomic or molecular systems, we could potentially have three different kinds of ensemble, depending on

1520-413: Is an accepted version of this page Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter . The others are solid , liquid , and plasma . A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon ), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen ), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide ). A gas mixture , such as air , contains

1600-405: Is referred to as compressibility . Like pressure and temperature, density is a state variable of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a static gas , the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a scalar quantity . It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of

1680-414: Is the ideal gas law and reads where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is amount of gas (in mol units), R is the universal gas constant , 8.314 J/(mol K), and T is the temperature. Written this way, it is sometimes called the "chemist's version", since it emphasizes the number of molecules n . It can also be written as where R s {\displaystyle R_{s}}

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1760-414: Is the reciprocal of specific volume. Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, or the inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume. This variation of density

1840-404: Is the key to connection between the microscopic states of a system and the macroscopic variables which we can measure, such as temperature, pressure, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy, just to name a few. ( Read : Partition function Meaning and significance ) Using the partition function to find the energy of a molecule, or system of molecules, can sometimes be approximated by

1920-403: Is the reason why modeling a "real gas" is more mathematically difficult than an " ideal gas". Ignoring these proximity-dependent forces allows a real gas to be treated like an ideal gas , which greatly simplifies calculation. The intermolecular attractions and repulsions between two gas molecules depend on the distance between them. The combined attractions and repulsions are well-modelled by

2000-426: Is the specific gas constant for a particular gas, in units J/(kg K), and ρ = m/V is density. This notation is the "gas dynamicist's" version, which is more practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions. The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the heat capacity of a gas. In the most general case, the specific heat is a function of both temperature and pressure. If

2080-413: Is typical to speak of intensive and extensive properties . Properties which depend on the amount of gas (either by mass or volume) are called extensive properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a unit of mass of a gas that is identical throughout

2160-421: Is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale . A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles within

2240-597: The Equipartition theorem , which greatly-simplifies calculation. However, this method assumes all molecular degrees of freedom are equally populated, and therefore equally utilized for storing energy within the molecule. It would imply that internal energy changes linearly with temperature, which is not the case. This ignores the fact that heat capacity changes with temperature, due to certain degrees of freedom being unreachable (a.k.a. "frozen out") at lower temperatures. As internal energy of molecules increases, so does

2320-552: The Guinness brewery used tankers to transport the stout across the Irish Sea . Different products require different handling and transport, with specialised variants such as " chemical tankers ", " oil tankers ", and " LNG carriers " developed to handle dangerous chemicals, oil and oil-derived products, and liquefied natural gas respectively. These broad variants may be further differentiated with respect to ability to carry only

2400-546: The Lennard-Jones potential , which is one of the most extensively studied of all interatomic potentials describing the potential energy of molecular systems. Due to the general applicability and importance, the Lennard-Jones model system is often referred to as 'Lennard-Jonesium'. The Lennard-Jones potential between molecules can be broken down into two separate components: a long-distance attraction due to

2480-601: The London dispersion force , and a short-range repulsion due to electron-electron exchange interaction (which is related to the Pauli exclusion principle ). When two molecules are relatively distant (meaning they have a high potential energy), they experience a weak attracting force, causing them to move toward each other, lowering their potential energy. However, if the molecules are too far away, then they would not experience attractive force of any significance. Additionally, if

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2560-475: The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution . Use of this distribution implies ideal gases near thermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered. The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is "v" with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram. The symbol used to represent volume in equations is "V" with SI units of cubic meters. When performing a thermodynamic analysis, it

2640-537: The United States Maritime Administration 's statistics count 4,024 tankers of 10,000 LT  DWT or greater worldwide. 2,582 of these are double-hulled. Panama is the leading flag state of tankers, with 592 registered ships. Five other flag states have more than two hundred registered tankers: Liberia (520), The Marshall Islands (323), Greece (233), Singapore (274) and The Bahamas (215). These flag states are also

2720-480: The average freight rate assessment (AFRA) system, which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers' Panel (LTBP) . At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000  DWT and Large Range (later Long Range) for

2800-458: The compressibility factor Z is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the ideal gas law . This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside

2880-411: The macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury , thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to

2960-415: The 1970s. Amoco Cadiz , Braer , Erika , Exxon Valdez , Prestige and Torrey Canyon were examples of accidents. Oil spills from tankers amounted to around 1,000 tonnes in 2020 from three incidents (an all-time low), down from 636,000 tonnes from 92 incidents in 1979 - a fall of 99.8%. Many modern tankers are designed for a specific cargo and a specific route. Draft is typically limited by

3040-575: The CIA to raise a sunken Soviet submarine lost 2 years earlier in the Pacific. The ship's construction required a purpose built crane ship , Sun 800 , to lift its 630-ton gimbal into place. The company was sold to Pennsylvania Shipbuilding in 1982, and closed in 1989. The Central Yard site has been sold or leased for multiple uses, while the North Yard is now an independent cargo terminal. In 2006,

3120-727: The French-American historian Jacques Barzun speculated that Van Helmont had borrowed the word from the German Gäscht , meaning the froth resulting from fermentation . Because most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics: pressure , volume , number of particles (chemists group them by moles ) and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle , Jacques Charles , John Dalton , Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for

3200-520: The South and #4 Yards for industrial development. In the 1970s, Sun built ten roll-on/roll-off (ro/ro) ships for various operators. One of them, sailing under the name SS El Faro , was lost in a hurricane on October 1, 2015, while steaming from Jacksonville, Florida, to San Juan, Puerto Rico. On or around February 18, 1971, the Glomar Explorer , a top secret ship was designed and built for

3280-591: The United States and controversially segregated many of the black workers to yard #4. Sun Shipbuilding built 281 T2 tankers during World War II, about 40% of the U.S. wartime total. It also built hospital ships, cargo ships, and escort carriers for the United States Maritime Commission (MARCOM). On 27 September 1941, it contributed one of the 14 ships launched on Liberty Fleet Day : SS Surprise . Sun Shipbuilding originally had

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3360-408: The ability to store energy within additional degrees of freedom. As more degrees of freedom become available to hold energy, this causes the molar heat capacity of the substance to increase. Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles, illustrates how this behavior results in

3440-418: The above stated effects which cause these attractions and repulsions, real gases , delineate from the ideal gas model by the following generalization: An equation of state (for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore,

3520-444: The attractive London-dispersion force. If the two molecules collide, they are moving too fast and their kinetic energy will be much greater than any attractive potential energy, so they will only experience repulsion upon colliding. Thus, attractions between molecules can be neglected at high temperatures due to high speeds. At high temperatures, and high pressures, repulsion is the dominant intermolecular interaction. Accounting for

3600-429: The column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an inverse relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the product was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field. There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. Boyle's lab equipment allowed

3680-491: The compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces . The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion. Compared to

3760-410: The container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density decreases as the volume increases. If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion. These gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or with the sides of

3840-466: The container. This microscopic view of gas is well-described by statistical mechanics , but it can be described by many different theories. The kinetic theory of gases , which makes the assumption that these collisions are perfectly elastic , does not account for intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion. Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with

3920-479: The definitions of momentum and kinetic energy , one can use the conservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties. The kinetic theory of gases can help explain how the system (the collection of gas particles being considered) responds to changes in temperature, with

4000-513: The depth of water in loading and unloading harbors; and may be limited by the depth of straits or canals along the preferred shipping route. Cargoes with high vapor pressure at ambient temperatures may require pressurized tanks or vapor recovery systems. Tank heaters may be required to maintain heavy crude oil , residual fuel , asphalt , wax , or molasses in a fluid state for offloading. Tankers used for liquid fuels are classified according to their capacity. In 1954, Shell Oil developed

4080-522: The equation to read pV = constant and then varying the n through different values such as the specific heat ratio , γ . Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior: For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where real gas effects would have a significant impact would be on the Space Shuttle re-entry where extremely high temperatures and pressures were present or

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4160-439: The gas system in question, makes it possible to solve such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate. In this flight situation, the gas is no longer behaving ideally. The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is "p" or "P" with SI units of pascals . When describing

4240-593: The microscopic behavior of molecules in any system, and therefore, are necessary for accurately predicting the physical properties of gases (and liquids) across wide variations in physical conditions. Arising from the study of physical chemistry , one of the most prominent intermolecular forces throughout physics, are van der Waals forces . Van der Waals forces play a key role in determining nearly all physical properties of fluids such as viscosity , flow rate , and gas dynamics (see physical characteristics section). The van der Waals interactions between gas molecules,

4320-508: The molecules get too close then they will collide, and experience a very high repulsive force (modelled by Hard spheres ) which is a much stronger force than the attractions, so that any attraction due to proximity is disregarded. As two molecules approach each other, from a distance that is neither too-far, nor too-close, their attraction increases as the magnitude of their potential energy increases (becoming more negative), and lowers their total internal energy. The attraction causing

4400-473: The molecules into close proximity, and raising the pressure, the repulsions will begin to dominate over the attractions, as the rate at which collisions are happening will increase significantly. Therefore, at low temperatures, and low pressures, attraction is the dominant intermolecular interaction. If two molecules are moving at high speeds, in arbitrary directions, along non-intersecting paths, then they will not spend enough time in proximity to be affected by

4480-420: The molecules to get closer, can only happen if the molecules remain in proximity for the duration of time it takes to physically move closer. Therefore, the attractive forces are strongest when the molecules move at low speeds . This means that the attraction between molecules is significant when gas temperatures is low . However, if you were to isothermally compress this cold gas into a small volume, forcing

4560-510: The more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, tools to interpret them become more complex, from the Euler equations for inviscid flow to the Navier–Stokes equations that fully account for viscous effects. This advanced math, including statistics and multivariable calculus , adapted to the conditions of

4640-514: The other states of matter, gases have low density and viscosity . Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as compressibility . This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive indices . Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container. When observing gas, it

4720-422: The particle. During a collision only the normal component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall does not change its momentum. Therefore, the average force on a surface must be the average change in linear momentum from all of these gas particle collisions. Pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by

4800-521: The particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule were examined. Forces between two or more molecules or atoms, either attractive or repulsive, are called intermolecular forces . Intermolecular forces are experienced by molecules when they are within physical proximity of one another. These forces are very important for properly modeling molecular systems, as to accurately predict

4880-477: The particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system. In statistical mechanics , temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a molecule (also known as the thermal energy). The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the degrees of freedom of the molecule itself ( energy modes ). Thermal (kinetic) energy added to a gas or liquid (an endothermic process) produces translational, rotational, and vibrational motion. In contrast,

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4960-409: The particles inside. Once their internal energy is above zero-point energy , meaning their kinetic energy (also known as thermal energy ) is non-zero, the gas particles will begin to move around the container. As the box is further heated (as more energy is added), the individual particles increase their average speed as the system's total internal energy increases. The higher average-speed of all

5040-417: The particles leads to a greater rate at which collisions happen (i.e. greater number of collisions per unit of time), between particles and the container, as well as between the particles themselves. The macro scopic, measurable quantity of pressure, is the direct result of these micro scopic particle collisions with the surface, over which, individual molecules exert a small force, each contributing to

5120-407: The pressure-dependence is neglected (and possibly the temperature-dependence as well) in a particular application, sometimes the gas is said to be a perfect gas , although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science. For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat. An ideal gas is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that

5200-400: The region. In contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view. Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related

5280-488: The scandal involving the Rum Ring Trial. By the start of World War II , Sun was among the country's five largest shipyards, with eight slipways . Twenty slipways were added during the war, making Sun Ship the country's largest shipyard. At its peak, the company employed more than 40,000 workers at four shipyards. During World War II, Sun Shipbuilding was the largest private-sector employer of African-Americans in

5360-467: The situation: microcanonical ensemble , canonical ensemble , or grand canonical ensemble . Specific combinations of microstates within an ensemble are how we truly define macrostate of the system (temperature, pressure, energy, etc.). In order to do that, we must first count all microstates though use of a partition function . The use of statistical mechanics and the partition function is an important tool throughout all of physical chemistry, because it

5440-513: The spreading out of gases ( entropy ). These events are also described by particle theory . Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions about how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian motion because Brownian motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with

5520-404: The surface area of the wall. The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins . The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature . The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of

5600-493: The system. However, in real gases and other real substances, the motions which define the kinetic energy of a system (which collectively determine the temperature), are much more complex than simple linear translation due to the more complex structure of molecules, compared to single atoms which act similarly to point-masses . In real thermodynamic systems, quantum phenomena play a large role in determining thermal motions. The random, thermal motions (kinetic energy) in molecules

5680-739: The terms tanker and replenishment tanker . Tankers were first developed in the late 19th century as iron and steel hulls and pumping systems were developed. As of 2005, there were just over 4,000 tankers and supertankers 10,000 LT  DWT or greater operating worldwide. Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred tons , which includes vessels for servicing small harbours and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, for long-range haulage. Besides ocean- or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland-waterway tankers which operate on rivers and canals with an average cargo capacity up to some thousand tons. A wide range of products are carried by tankers, including: Tankers are

5760-499: The then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000  DWT . The ships became larger during the 1970s, and the list was extended, where the tons are metric tonnes : At nearly 380 vessels in the size range 279,000 t  DWT to 320,000 t  DWT , these are by far the most popular size range among the larger VLCCs. Only seven vessels are larger than this, and approximately 90 between 220,000 t  DWT and 279,000 t  DWT . [REDACTED] As of 2005,

5840-561: The top six in terms of fleet size in terms of deadweight tonnage . Greece, Japan, and the United States are the top three owners of tankers (including those owned but registered to other nations ), with 733, 394, and 311 vessels respectively. These three nations account for 1,438 vessels or over 36% of the world's fleet. Asian companies dominate the construction of tankers. Of the world's 4,024 tankers, 2,822 (over 70%) were built in South Korea, Japan and China. Petroleum Tables ,

5920-434: The total force applied within a specific area. ( Read § Pressure . ) Likewise, the macroscopically measurable quantity of temperature , is a quantification of the overall amount of motion, or kinetic energy that the particles exhibit. ( Read § Temperature . ) In the kinetic theory of gases , kinetic energy is assumed to purely consist of linear translations according to a speed distribution of particles in

6000-407: The upper end of the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections – 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to

6080-411: The use of just a simple calculation to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal" manner. These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. However, the high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore

6160-581: The volume of the holds in terms of how many tuns or casks of wine could be carried. Even potable water, vital for the survival of the crew, was stowed in casks. Carrying bulk liquids in earlier ships posed several problems: Tankers were first used by the oil industry to transfer refined fuel in bulk from refineries to customers. This would then be stored in large tanks ashore, and subdivided for delivery to individual locations. The use of tankers caught on because other liquids were also cheaper to transport in bulk, store in dedicated terminals, then subdivide. Even

6240-646: Was developed by Sun Oil Company , and launched its first ship in 1917, just as the United States was entering World War I . Under the direction of its president, John Glenn Pew , the company experienced tremendous success over the following decades. In the 1920s, it had become a large shipyard that built tankers for the Standard Oil Company . In 1936, the Pew family offered John J. McClure and his Republican political machine control over hiring at Sun Shipbuilding as patronage to lure him out of retirement after

6320-543: Was first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont . He identified carbon dioxide , the first known gas other than air. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Ancient Greek word χάος ' chaos '  – the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in " loch " (voiceless velar fricative, / x / ) – in which case Van Helmont simply

6400-500: Was following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus . According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like ' ultra-rarefied water ' . An alternative story is that Van Helmont's term was derived from " gahst (or geist ), which signifies a ghost or spirit". That story is given no credence by the editors of the Oxford English Dictionary . In contrast,

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