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40-533: Noted paleontologist Robert Broom was a frequent digger. He was followed by C. K. 'Bob' Brain , whose excavations at the site inspired his book The Hunters or the Hunted? in which he demonstrated that instead of being bloodthirsty killer apes, the hominin fossils found at the site were themselves victims of predation by big cats . Originally, it was believed that Dinofelis was responsible for such killings, though recent evidence suggests that hominids were likely

80-472: A list of all the (then) known fossil vertebrate genera . Romer became the first president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1940, alongside co-founder Howard Chiu. An updated work that largely carried on the tradition from Romer, and by many considered definitive book on the subject was written by Robert L. Carroll of McGill University, the 1988 text Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution . Carroll

120-587: A medical practitioner in 1895 and received his DSc in 1905 from the University of Glasgow . From 1903 to 1910, he was professor of zoology and geology at Victoria College , Stellenbosch , South Africa, and subsequently he became keeper of vertebrate palaeontology at the South African Museum , Cape Town . Broom was born at 66 Back Sneddon Street in Paisley , Renfrewshire , Scotland,

160-541: A noted interest in the Khoisan peoples, which included collecting their remains, including those of the recently deceased, as well as by digging up old graves. Broom first began collecting modern human remains in 1897, shortly after he moved to South Africa. In that year he collected the remains of three elderly " Hottentot " people that had died around Port Nolloth following a drought in the region. Broom stated that he "cut their heads off and boiled them in paraffin tins on

200-499: A novel form of reproduction freeing them from the water: the amniotic egg , with full-fledged amniotes appearing in the mid-Carboniferous. Sharks and their holocephalian relatives flourished in the seas, while rivers were dominated by lobe-finned fish like rhizodonts . During the Permian period (299 to 252 Ma), one of the two major branches of amniotes, the synapsids , flourished, with derived therapsids taking over in

240-671: A reputation as a " splitter " that has resulted in only around 57% of his holotypes still being considered valid as of 2003. In the following years, he and John T. Robinson made a series of spectacular finds, including fragments from six hominins in Sterkfontein , which they named Plesianthropus transvaalensis , popularly called Mrs. Ples , but which was later classified as an adult Australopithecus africanus , as well as more discoveries at sites in Kromdraai and Swartkrans . In 1937, Broom made his most famous discovery , by defining

280-597: Is a limestone cave and has been divided geologically into five members . Member 1 consists of two large masses, named the Hanging Remnant and Lower Bank. Homo ergaster and Paranthropus robustus remains have been found in Member 1, and Member 2 has yielded the same genera. Robert Broom Robert Broom FRS FRSE (30 November 1866 – 6 April 1951) was a British- South African medical doctor and palaeontologist . He qualified as

320-400: Is also still used in some specialist works like Fortuny & al. (2011). Kingdom Animalia The oVert (openVertebrate) Thematic Collection Network (TCN) is a project that aims to generate and distribute high-resolution digital three-dimensional data for internal anatomy across vertebrate diversity. The project will CT-scan over 20,000 fluid-preserved specimens, representing more than 80% of

360-536: The American mastodon and the woolly mammoth . Paleontology really got started though, with the publication of Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833–1843) by Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873). He studied, described and listed hundreds of species of fossil fish , beginning the serious study into the lives of extinct animals. With the publication of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859,

400-487: The Ordovician period about 485 to 444 Ma ( megaannum , million years ago), with jawed vertebrates emerging in the following Silurian period (444 to 419 Ma) with the placoderms and acanthodians . The Devonian period (419 to 359 Ma) saw primitive air-breathing fish to develop limbs allowing them to walk on land, thus becoming the first terrestrial vertebrates, the stegocephalians . Romer's gap in

440-414: The Permian dicynodont Robertia broomiana . Also Aloe broomii Vertebrate palaeontology Vertebrate paleontology is the subfield of paleontology that seeks to discover, through the study of fossilized remains, the behavior, reproduction and appearance of extinct vertebrates (animals with vertebrae and their descendants). It also tries to connect, by using the evolutionary timeline ,

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480-526: The South African War . From 1903 to 1910, he was professor of Zoology and Geology at Victoria College, Stellenbosch (later Stellenbosch University ), but was forced out of this position for promoting belief in evolution. He established a medical practice in the Karoo region of South Africa, an area rich in therapsid fossils. Based on his continuing studies of these fossils and mammalian anatomy he

520-522: The pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , mosasaurs and nearly all dinosaurs , leaving many ecological niches open. While therian mammals had already evolved in the Late Jurassic, they would rise to prominence in the Paleogene following the mass extinction and remain to this day, although squamates and birds still lead in diversity. One of the people who helped figure out the vertebrate progression

560-638: The Khoisan peoples as a " degenerate " and "degraded race", speculating in 1907 that they descended from "the race which built the Pyramids" and " Mongoloids ", but had "degenerated" due to South Africa's hot climate. In his later works he divided the Khoisan peoples into three races , the Bushmen, Hottentot and Korana, based on supposed typological differences, with the type specimen of the Korana race being

600-615: The United States with the reading of a paper to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia in 1797. Jefferson presented fossil bones of a ground sloth found in a cave in western Virginia and named the genus ( Megalonyx ). The species was ultimately named Megalonyx jeffersonii in his honor. Jefferson corresponded with Cuvier, including sending him a shipment of highly desirable bones of

640-407: The animals of the past and their modern-day relatives. The fossil record shows aspects of the meandering evolutionary path from early aquatic vertebrates to modern fish as well as mammals , birds , reptiles and amphibians , with a host of transitional fossils , though there are still large blank areas. The earliest known fossil vertebrates were heavily armored fish discovered in rocks from

680-515: The cave was originally on was purchased by the University of the Witwatersrand in 1968. The cave was discovered in 1948, and initial excavations were carried out by paleontologist Robert Broom . His team uncovered several remains of Paranthropus robustus and early Homo species. It was the first site at which both Paranthropus and Homo had been found together, indicating that they were contemporary. Excavation then halted until

720-404: The conclusion that termites, a high source of nutrients, were a supplementary food source for early hominids. Bone tools would have allowed for easier extraction of the insects than stones would have. In 2016, the discovery of the earliest known evidence of cancer in hominins was announced. An osteosarcoma was found on a partial left fifth metatarsal from an unclassified hominin. Swartkrans

760-446: The descendants of reptiles (Saurischian dinosaurs to be precise), but in this system both are listed as separate classes. Under phylogenetic nomenclature , such an arrangement is unacceptable, though it offers excellent overview. This classical scheme is still used in works where systematic overview is essential, e.g. Benton (1998), Hildebrand and Goslow (2001) and Knobill and Neill (2006). While mostly seen in general works, it

800-679: The earliest evidence of modified bone tools has also been found at Swartkrans and Sterkfontein, with the oldest at Swartkrans dating to about 1.8 million years ago. These tools may have been made by Australopithecus robustus or an early species of Homo , which both inhabited the cave around the same time. These early tools were first speculated to have been used to dig up tubers , but they may instead have been used to harvest termites, which were present during Swartkrans's occupation; many of these tools may have been multipurpose. Re-evaluation of wear on stone and bone tools uncovered by Brain in earlier excavations and experiments by researchers have led to

840-444: The early Carboniferous period (359 to 299 Ma) left little of the early stegocephalians, but allowed vertebrates more adapted to life on land to flourish in their wake. Crown-group tetrapods appeared in the early Carboniferous, with temnospondyls dominating the ecosystem and becoming the first land vertebrate megafauna. A lineage of reptiliomorphs developed a metabolism better suited for life exclusively on land, as well as

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880-448: The field got a theoretical framework. Much of the subsequent work has been to map the relationship between fossil and extant organisms, as well as their history through time. In modern times, Alfred Romer (1894–1973) wrote what has been termed the definitive textbook on the subject, called Vertebrate Paleontology . It shows the progression of evolution in fossil fish, and amphibians and reptiles through comparative anatomy, including

920-560: The kitchen stove". Their skulls were later sent to the medical school of the University of Edinburgh , alongside a 7 month old foetus, from which Broom had removed the brain which he preserved separately. Broom also obtained remains of deceased prisoners, stating: "If a prisoner dies and you want his skeleton, probably two or three regulations stand in the way, but the enthusiast does not worry about such regulations." Broom said that he had buried several corpses in his garden allowing them to decay before later retrieving their bones. These include

960-437: The mid-1960s and continued until the 1980s, when C. K. Brain brought a team to Swartkrans. Thousands of artifacts and faunal remains were uncovered, 415 of which are considered to be hominin. Brain expanded upon the site's stratigraphy, which was more complex than previously thought. Some of the earliest evidence of controlled use of fire by humans can be found at Swartkrans, up to 1.5 million years ago. In addition, some of

1000-519: The middle of the period . The Great Dying wiped out most of the synapsid diversity, with archosaurs , emerging from the other sauropsid branch, replacing many of them in the Triassic period (252 to 201 Ma). Lissamphibians , modern amphibians, likely arose around that time from temnospondyls. True mammals , derived from cynodont therapsids, showed up in the Middle Triassic around

1040-555: The most complete of which was an australopithecine skull, nicknamed Mrs Ples , and a partial skeleton that indicated that australopithecines walked upright. Broom died in Pretoria , South Africa in 1951. Broom was first known for his study of therapsids . After Raymond Dart 's discovery of the Taung Child , an infant australopithecine, Broom's interest in palaeoanthropology was heightened. Broom's career seemed over and he

1080-421: The origin of Homo sapiens is the ultimate purpose behind evolution. According to Broom "Much of evolution looks as if it had been planned to result in man, and in other animals and plants to make the world a suitable place for him to dwell in." After discovering the skull of Mrs. Ples, Broom was asked if he excavated at random, Broom replied that spirits had told him where to find his discoveries. Broom had

1120-528: The remains of two men who were imprisoned in Douglas jail: Andreas Links, an 18 year old !Ora man, (catalogued as MMK 264), as well an unnamed 18 year old "bushman" from Langeberg (catalogued as MMK 283), who was photographed while alive at the request of Broom, despite this being against policy. The skeletons of both men were added to the collections of the McGregor Museum in 1921. Broom described

1160-694: The robust hominin genus Paranthropus with his discovery of Paranthropus robustus . These discoveries helped support Dart's claims for the Taung species. For his volume, The South Africa Fossil Ape-Men, The Australopithecinae , in which he proposed the Australopithecinae subfamily, Broom was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1946. The remainder of Broom's career

1200-562: The same time as the dinosaurs , who emerged from a clade of archosaurs. At the same time, ray-finned fish diversified, leading to teleost fish dominating the seas. Ancestral birds ( Avialae ) like Archaeopteryx first evolved from dinosaurs during the Jurassic , with crown-group birds ( Neornithes ) emerging in the Cretaceous between 100 Ma and 60 Ma. The K-Pg mass extinction wiped out many vertebrate clades, including

1240-441: The skeleton of Links. Other contemporary anthropologists questioned this classification scheme, especially the Korana race. Broom later said that he had "invented the Korana". All such typological racial classification schemes are discredited today, due to being based on vague criteria, resulting in the rigid categorization ultimately being arbitrary. Anatomist Goran Štrkalj wrote that: "It is obvious that Broom's anthropological work

Swartkrans - Misplaced Pages Continue

1280-522: The son of John Broom, a designer of calico prints and Paisley shawls , and Agnes Hunter Shearer. In 1893, he married Mary Baird Baillie, his childhood sweetheart. In his medical studies at the University of Glasgow Broom specialised in obstetrics. After graduating in 1895 he travelled to Australia, supporting himself by practising medicine. He settled in South Africa in 1897, just prior to

1320-528: The victims of Megantereon or leopards based on carbon isotope ratios taken from each predator. Swartkrans is located on the Blaauwbank River in the Cradle of Humankind, which has a long record of some of the oldest hominin remain discoveries in the world. It is located 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from Sterkfontein , a site that has yielded similar discoveries of the same era. The private farmland

1360-414: Was ... influenced by the racist stereotypes and prejudices of the day". Among hundreds of articles contributed by him to scientific journals, the most important include: Books Robert Broom is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Australian blind snake , Anilios broomi , the Triassic archosauromorph reptile Prolacerta broomi , the rhinesuchid amphibian Broomistega and

1400-420: Was French zoologist Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), who realized that fossils found in older rock strata differed greatly from more recent fossils or modern animals. He published his findings in 1812 and, although he steadfastly refuted evolution , his work proved the (at the time) contested theory of extinction of species. Thomas Jefferson is credited with initiating the science of vertebrate paleontology in

1440-420: Was a believer in spiritual evolution . In his book The Coming of Man: Was it Accident or Design? (1933) he claimed that "spiritual agencies" had guided evolution as animals and plants were too complex to have arisen by chance. According to Broom, there were at least two different kinds of spiritual forces, and psychics are capable of seeing them. Broom claimed there was a plan and purpose in evolution and that

1480-481: Was devoted to the exploration of these sites and the interpretation of the many early hominin remains discovered there. He continued to write to the last. Shortly before his death he finished a monograph on the Australopithecines and remarked to his nephew: Broom was a nonconformist and was deeply interested in the paranormal and spiritualism ; he was a critic of Darwinism and materialism . Broom

1520-660: Was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1920. Following the discovery of the Taung child he became interested in the search for human ancestors and commenced work on much more recent fossils from the dolomite caves north-west of Johannesburg, particularly Sterkfontein Cave (now part of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site). As well as describing many mammalian fossils from these caves he identified several hominin fossils,

1560-567: Was president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1983. The Society keeps its members informed on the latest discoveries through newsletters and the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology . The "traditional" vertebrate classification scheme employ evolutionary taxonomy where several of the taxa listed are paraphyletic , i.e. have given rise to another taxa that have been given the same rank. For instance, birds are generally considered to be

1600-684: Was sinking into poverty, when Dart wrote to Jan Smuts about the situation. Smuts, exerting pressure on the South African government, managed to obtain a position for Broom in 1934 with the staff of the Transvaal Museum in Pretoria as an Assistant in Palaeontology . Broom has been described as "one of the great Karoo (and, in particular, therapsid) palaeontologists", having managed to describe 369 therapsid holotypes in his lifetime, which he ascribed to 168 new genera. Broom has

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