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87-535: Panicum virgatum , commonly known as switchgrass , is a perennial warm season bunchgrass native to North America, where it occurs naturally from 55°N latitude in Canada southwards into the United States and Mexico. Switchgrass is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie and can be found in remnant prairies, in native grass pastures , and naturalized along roadsides. It

174-443: A century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous ), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in

261-446: A feedstock for biomass energy production, as ground cover for soil conservation , and to control erosion , for forages and grazing , as game cover, and as feedstock for biodegradable plastics. It can be used by cattle farmers for hay and pasture and as a substitute for wheat straw in many applications, including livestock bedding, straw bale housing, and as a substrate for growing mushrooms. Additionally, switchgrass

348-940: A photolyase and the other, a protein involved in nucleotide excision repair ). Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals ; herbaceous food crops like asparagus , rhubarb , strawberries ; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes , eggplant , and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); lawn grass, and other groundcovers , (such as periwinkle and Dichondra ). Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris, or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have

435-450: A diverse mixture, planting guidelines for warm-season grass mixtures for conservation plantings should be followed. Regional guidelines for growing and managing switchgrass for bioenergy or conservation plantings are available. Several key factors can increase the likelihood of success for establishing switchgrass. These include: Mowing and properly labeled herbicides are recommended for weed control . Chemical weed control can be used in

522-441: A feedstock for commercial heating applications. Combustion studies have been undertaken and it appears to be well-suited as a commercial boiler fuel. Research is also being undertaken to develop switchgrass as a pellet fuel because of lack of surplus wood residues in eastern Canada, as a slowdown in the forest products industry in 2009 is now resulting in wood pellet shortages throughout Eastern North America. Generally speaking,

609-436: A genetically altered form of the bacterium Caldicellulosiruptor bescii was created which can cheaply and efficiently turn switchgrass into ethanol. In a novel application, US scientists have genetically modified switchgrass to enable it to produce polyhydroxybutyrate , which accumulates in beadlike granules within the plant's cells. In preliminary tests, the dry weight of a plants leaves were shown to comprise up to 3.7% of

696-574: A great extent by its long established tourism industry but also by its position as a gateway to the Caribbean and Latin America . As of 2024, Texas and Florida are the second and third most populous states in the nation, respectively. Other areas of the Gulf Coast have benefited less, though economic development fueled by tourism has greatly increased property values along the coast, and is now

783-442: A greenhouse gas mitigation strategy, switchgrass pellets were found to be an effective means to use farmland to mitigate greenhouse gases on the order of 7.6–13 tonnes of CO 2 per hectare. In contrast, switchgrass cellulosic ethanol and corn ethanol were found to mitigate 5.2 and 1.5 tonnes of CO 2 per hectare, respectively. Historically, the major constraint to the development of grasses for thermal energy applications has been

870-404: A potential biofuel source. Switchgrass has the potential to produce up to 380 liters of ethanol per tonne harvested. However, current technology for herbaceous biomass conversion to ethanol is about 340 liters per tonne. In contrast, corn ethanol yields about 400 liters per tonne. The main advantage of using switchgrass over corn as an ethanol feedstock is its cost of production

957-416: A profitable business by leasing their switchgrass land for hunting during the proper seasons. The benefits to wildlife can be extended even in large-scale agriculture through the process of strip harvesting, as recommended by The Wildlife Society , which suggests that rather than harvesting an entire field at once, strip harvesting could be practiced so that the entire habitat is not removed, thereby protecting

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1044-407: A root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019. Although most of humanity

1131-408: A study to analyze the environmental sustainability of using switchgrass plant material as a feedstock for ethanol production. Life cycle analysis was used to make this assessment. They compared efficiency of E10 , E85 , and ethanol with gasoline . They took into account air and water emissions associated with growing, managing, processing and storing the switchgrass crop. They also factored in

1218-592: A substitute for coal in power generation . The most widely studied project to date has been the Chariton Valley Project in Iowa . The Show-Me-Energy Cooperative (SMEC) in Missouri is using switchgrass and other warm-season grasses, along with wood residues, as feedstocks for pellets used for the firing of a coal-fired power plant. In Eastern Canada , switchgrass is being used on a pilot scale as

1305-559: A traditional monoculture, has an adverse impact on some wildlife. Depending on how thickly switchgrass is planted, and what it is partnered with, it also offers excellent forage and cover for other wildlife across the country. For those producers who have switchgrass stands on their farm, it is considered an environmental and aesthetic benefit due to the abundance of wildlife attracted by the switchgrass stands. Some members of Prairie Lands Bio-Products, Inc. in Iowa have even turned this benefit into

1392-479: A very few (e.g. Zostera ) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including trees and shrubs. Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This

1479-429: A well-developed panicle , often up to 60 cm (24 in) long, and it bears a good crop of seeds . The seeds are 3–6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 4  in) long and up to 1.5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16  in) wide, and are developed from a single-flowered spikelet . Both glumes are present and well developed. When ripe, the seeds sometimes take on a pink or dull-purple tinge, and turn golden brown with

1566-473: Is a general guideline. More specific recommendations for fertilization are available regionally in North America . Herbicides are not often used on switchgrass after the seeding year, as the crop is generally quite competitive with weeds. Most bioenergy conversion processes for switchgrass, including those for cellulosic ethanol and pellet fuel production, can generally accept some alternative species in

1653-433: Is a hardy, deep-rooted, perennial rhizomatous grass that begins growth in late spring . It can grow up to 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) high, but is typically shorter than big bluestem grass or indiangrass . The leaves are 30–90 cm (12–35 in) long, with a prominent midrib. Switchgrass uses C 4 carbon fixation , giving it an advantage in conditions of drought and high temperature. Its flowers have

1740-783: Is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates. Each section contains a short list of species related to that topic, these are an example as the true lists would fill several books. Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Some examples include: The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include: Many herbs are perennial, including these examples: Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of

1827-483: Is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of humans), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion , capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides ). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase

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1914-479: Is generally about 1/2 that of grain corn, and more biomass energy per hectare can be captured in the field. Thus, switchgrass cellulosic ethanol should give a higher yield of ethanol per hectare at lower cost. However, this will depend on whether the cost of constructing and operating cellulosic ethanol plants can be reduced considerably. The switchgrass ethanol industry energy balance is also considered to be substantially better than that of corn ethanol . During

2001-583: Is grown as a drought-resistant ornamental grass in average to wet soils and in full sun to part shade. It is the preferred larval host plant of Dargida rubripennis . It is also a larval host for the Delaware skipper and the Hobomok skipper . Switchgrass has been researched as a renewable bioenergy crop since the mid-1980s, because it is a native perennial warm season grass with the ability to produce moderate to high yields on marginal farmlands. It

2088-542: Is important for regrowth. When harvesting switchgrass for hay, the first cutting occurs at the late boot stage – around mid-June. This should allow for a second cutting in mid-August, leaving enough regrowth to survive the winter. Switchgrass is well known among wildlife conservationists as good forage and habitat for upland game bird species, such as pheasant , quail , grouse , and wild turkey , and song birds , with its plentiful small seeds and tall cover. A study published in 2015 has shown that switchgrass, when grown in

2175-555: Is now being considered for use in several bioenergy conversion processes, including cellulosic ethanol production, biogas , and direct combustion for thermal energy applications. The main agronomic advantages of switchgrass as a bioenergy crop are its stand longevity, drought and flooding tolerance, relatively low herbicide and fertilizer input requirements, ease of management, hardiness in poor soil and climate conditions, and widespread adaptability in temperate climates. In some warm humid southern zones, such as Alabama , it has

2262-429: Is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season. Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns , or stems ; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect

2349-487: Is used primarily for soil conservation , forage production, game cover, as an ornamental grass , in phytoremediation projects, fiber, electricity, heat production, for biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , and more recently as a biomass crop for the production of ethanol and butanol . Other common names for switchgrass include tall panic grass, Wobsqua grass, blackbent, tall prairiegrass, wild redtop , thatchgrass, and Virginia switchgrass. Switchgrass

2436-662: The Atlantic seaboard and the fourth largest in the U.S. overall. Two major events were turning points in the earlier history of the Gulf Coast region. The first was the American Civil War , which caused severe damage to some economic sectors in the South , including the Gulf Coast. The second event was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 . At the end of the 19th century Galveston was, with New Orleans, one of

2523-605: The Gran Chaco is being studied by Argentina's Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Switchgrass can be grown on land considered unsuitable for row crop production, including land that is too erodible for corn production, as well as sandy and gravelly soils in humid regions that typically produce low yields of other farm crops. No single method of establishing switchgrass can be suggested for all situations. The crop can be established both by no-till and conventional tillage . When seeded as part of

2610-467: The Gulf Coast area. Switchgrass is a diverse species, with striking differences between plants. This diversity, which presumably reflects evolution and adaptation to new environments as the species spread across the continent, provides a range of valuable traits for breeding programs. Switchgrass has two distinct forms, or "cytotypes": the lowland cultivars , which tend to produce more biomass, and

2697-465: The Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume. As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U.S. are on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, combined with easy access to shipping, have made the Gulf Coast the heart of the U.S. petrochemical industry . The coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms . Besides

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2784-553: The United States east of the Rocky Mountains , and further south into Mexico . As a warm-season perennial grass, most of its growth occurs from late spring through early fall; it becomes dormant and unproductive during colder months. Thus, the productive season in its northern habitat can be as short as three months, but in the southern reaches of its habitat the growing season may be as long as eight months, around

2871-475: The astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter . Perennial plants can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to highly diverse flowering plants like orchids , grasses , and woody plants . Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous ; these species may live for many years before they flower. For example,

2958-399: The bioconversion process, the lignin fraction of switchgrass can be burned to provide sufficient steam and electricity to operate the biorefinery . Studies have found that for every unit of energy input needed to create a biofuel from switchgrass, four units of energy are yielded. In contrast, corn ethanol yields about 1.28 units of energy per unit of energy input. A 2008 study from

3045-444: The harvested biomass . Stands of switchgrass should be harvested no more than twice per year, and one cutting often provides as much biomass as two. Switchgrass can be harvested with the same field equipment used for hay production, and it is well-suited to baling or bulk field harvesting. If its biology is properly taken into consideration, switchgrass can offer great potential as an energy crop. Switchgrass can be used as

3132-493: The Great Plains indicated that for ethanol production from switchgrass, this figure is 6.4, or alternatively, that 540% more energy was contained in the ethanol produced than was used in growing the switchgrass and converting it to liquid fuel . However, there remain commercialization barriers to the development of cellulosic ethanol technology. Projections in the early 1990s for commercialization of cellulosic ethanol by

3219-555: The Gulf Coast from Houston, Texas , eastward, extreme rainfall events are a significant threat, commonly from tropical weather systems, which can bring 4 to 10 or more inches of rain in a single day. In August 2017, Hurricane Harvey made landfall along the central Texas coast, then migrated to and stalled over the greater Houston area for several days, producing extreme, unprecedented rainfall totals of over 40 inches (1,000 mm) in many areas, unleashing widespread flooding. Climate scientists predict more hurricanes for Florida and

3306-477: The Gulf Coast has a summer precipitation maximum, with July or August commonly the wettest month due to the combination of frequent summer thunderstorms produced by relentless heat and humidity, and tropical weather systems, including tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes , while winter and early spring rainfall also can be heavy. This pattern is evident in southern cites as Houston , New Orleans , Mobile, Alabama , and Pensacola, Florida . However,

3393-576: The Gulf Coast was a natural magnet in the South providing access to shipping lanes and both national and international commerce. The development of sugar and cotton production (enabled by slavery ) allowed the South to prosper. By the mid-19th century the city of New Orleans , being situated as a key to commerce on the Mississippi River and in the Gulf, had become the largest U.S. city not on

3480-683: The Gulf Coast was struck by a catastrophic hurricane. Due to its immense size, Hurricane Ike caused devastation from the Louisiana coastline all the way to the Kenedy County, Texas , region near Corpus Christi . In addition, Ike caused flooding and significant damage along the Mississippi coastline and the Florida Panhandle Ike killed 112 people and left upwards of 300 people missing, never to be found. Hurricane Ike

3567-444: The Gulf Coast, predominantly Florida, is dotted with many bays and inlets. The Gulf Coast climate is humid subtropical, although Southwest Florida features a tropical climate. Much of the year is warm to hot along the Gulf Coast, while the three winter months bring periods of cool (or rarely, cold) weather mixed with mild temperatures. The area is highly vulnerable to hurricanes as well as floods and severe thunderstorms . Much of

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3654-612: The Gulf Coast. In 2008 floods in Iowa destroyed the local Flood Museum which held materials from the Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993 . Before European settlers arrived in the region, the Gulf Coast was home to several pre-Columbian kingdoms which had extensive trade networks with empires such as the Aztecs and the Mississippi Mound Builders. Shark and alligator teeth and shells from

3741-665: The Gulf have been found as far north as Ohio, in the mounds of the Hopewell culture. The first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish . The Louisiana Purchase (1803), Adams–Onís Treaty (1819) and the Texas Revolution (1835–1836) made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during the first half of the 19th century. As the U.S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward,

3828-615: The Gulf of Mexico are Texas , Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , and these are known as the Gulf States . The economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy, petrochemicals, fishing, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism. The large cities of the region are (from west to east) Brownsville , Corpus Christi , Houston , Galveston , Beaumont , Lake Charles , Lafayette , Baton Rouge , New Orleans , Gulfport , Biloxi , Mobile , Pensacola , Panama City , St. Petersburg , and Tampa . All are

3915-524: The Texas coastline in particular. Earthquakes are extremely rare to the area, but a 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10, 2006, could be felt from the cities of New Orleans to Tampa. Due to the release of greenhouse gas emissions, glaciers and ice sheets are melting and expanding the oceans. The United States coastlines are projected to rise 1 foot in three decades or between 10 and 12 inches on average by 2050. The Gulf Coast will likely see

4002-583: The United States approximately $ 2.6 billion in relief efforts and caused at least seven deaths. By 2051, the cost of flood damage is expected to increase by 61%, or $ 32 billion. The Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds and nurseries for ocean life that drive the fishing and shrimping industries. The Port of South Louisiana ( Metropolitan New Orleans in Laplace ) and

4089-411: The United States use it to control erosion in grass waterways because of its ability to anchor soils while providing habitat for wildlife. Switchgrass is an excellent forage for cattle; however, it has shown toxicity in horses, sheep, and goats through chemical compounds known as saponins , which cause photosensitivity and liver damage in these animals. Researchers are continuing to learn more about

4176-1161: The United States, switchgrass yields appear to be highest in warm humid regions with long growing seasons such as the US Southeast and lowest in the dry short season areas of the Northern Great Plains . The energy inputs required to grow switchgrass are favorable when compared with annual seed bearing crops such as corn , soybean , or canola , which can require relatively high energy inputs for field operations, crop drying, and fertilization. Whole plant herbaceous perennial C4 grass feedstocks are desirable biomass energy feedstocks, as they require fewer fossil energy inputs to grow and effectively capture solar energy because of their C4 photosynthetic system and perennial nature. One study cites it takes from 0.97 to 1.34 GJ to produce 1 tonne of switchgrass, compared with 1.99 to 2.66 GJ to produce 1 tonne of corn. Another study found that switchgrass uses 0.8 GJ/ODT of fossil energy compared to grain corn's 2.9 GJ/ODT. Given that switchgrass contains approximately 18.8 GJ/ODT of biomass,

4263-415: The ability to produce up to 25 oven-dry tonnes per hectare (ODT/ha). A summary of switchgrass yields across 13 research trial sites in the United States found the top two cultivars in each trial to yield 9.4 to 22.9 t/ha, with an average yield of 14.6 ODT/ha. However, these yields were recorded on small plot trials, and commercial field sites could be expected to be at least 20% lower than these results. In

4350-476: The above, the region features other important industries including aerospace and biomedical research , as well as older industries such as agriculture and — especially since the development of the Gulf Coast beginning in the 1920s and the increase in wealth throughout the United States ;— tourism . Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita have destroyed a number of museums and archives in

4437-446: The advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years. An important aspect of cold acclimation is overexpression of DNA repair genes. In Thinopyrum intermedium a perennial relative of common wheat Triticum aestivum , conditions of freezing stress were shown to be associated with large increases in expression of two DNA repair genes (one gene product

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4524-866: The biggest change, with sea levels expected to rise between 14 and 18 inches. The Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Report predicted more frequent, major and destructive high tide flooding events along with taller storm surges by 2050 after scientists determined high tide flooding has been "increasingly common" over the past few years due to the rising sea levels. The impacts are expected to be dramatic. Low-lying coastal areas are expected to experience multiple factors, including increased levels of flooding, accelerated erosion, loss of wetlands and low-lying terrestrial ecosystems, and seawater intrusion into freshwater sources. Rising sea level and erosion will also imperil critical habitats for many commercially important fisheries that depend on inshore waters for either permanent residence or nursery area. In 2021 alone rising sea levels cost

4611-492: The centers or major cities of their respective metropolitan areas and many of which contain large ports . The Gulf Coast is made of many inlets , bays , and lagoons . The coast is intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi River . Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is, or was, marshland . Ringing the Gulf Coast is the Gulf Coastal Plain , which reaches from Southern Texas to

4698-463: The central and southern Florida peninsula and South Texas has a pronounced winter dry season, as at Tampa and Fort Myers . On the central and southern Texas coast, winter, early spring and mid-summer are markedly drier, and September is the wettest month on average at Corpus Christi and Brownsville, Texas . Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur; however, they occur more frequently in inland portions of Gulf Coast states. Over most of

4785-418: The difficulty associated with burning grasses in conventional boilers , as biomass quality problems can be of particular concern in combustion applications. These technical problems now appear to have been largely resolved through crop management practices such as fall mowing and spring harvesting that allow for leaching to occur, which leads to fewer aerosol -forming compounds (such as K and Cl) and N in

4872-471: The direct firing of switchgrass for thermal applications can provide the highest net energy gain and energy output-to-input ratio of all switchgrass bioconversion processes. Research has found switchgrass, when pelletized and used as a solid biofuel, is a good candidate for displacing fossil fuels. Switchgrass pellets were identified to have a 14.6:1 energy output-to-input ratio, which is substantially better than that for liquid biofuel options from farmland. As

4959-510: The dormancy period is over and new growth begins. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. Annuals which complete their life cycle in one growing season, in contrast with perennials, produce seeds as the next generation and die; the seeds may survive cold or dry periods or germinate soon after dispersal depending on the climate. Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of

5046-600: The energy output-to-input ratio for the crop can be up to 20:1. This highly favorable ratio is attributable to its relatively high energy output per hectare and low energy inputs for production. Considerable effort is being expended in developing switchgrass as a cellulosic ethanol crop in the USA. In George W. Bush's 2006 State of the Union Address , he proposed using switchgrass for ethanol; since then, over US$ 100 million has been invested into researching switchgrass as

5133-667: The fall prior to establishment, or before or after planting. Weeds should be mowed just above the height of the growing switchgrass. Hormone herbicides, such as 2,4-D , should be avoided as they are known to reduce development of switchgrass when applied early in the establishing year. Plantings that appear to have failed due to weed infestations are often wrongly assessed, as the failure is often more apparent than real. Switchgrass stands that are initially weedy commonly become well established with appropriate management in subsequent years. Once established, switchgrass can take up to three years to reach its full production potential. Depending on

5220-502: The foliage of the plant in the fall. Switchgrass is both a perennial and self-seeding crop, which means farmers do not have to plant and reseed after annual harvesting. Once established, a switchgrass stand can survive for ten years or longer. Unlike corn , switchgrass can grow on marginal lands and requires relatively modest levels of chemical fertilizers . Overall, it is considered a resource-efficient, low-input crop for producing bioenergy from farmland. Much of North America, especially

5307-564: The grass's deep root system. Soil erosion , both from wind and water, is of great concern in regions where switchgrass grows. Due to its height, switchgrass can form an effective wind erosion barrier. Its root system, also, is excellent for holding soil in place, which helps prevent erosion from flooding and runoff. Some highway departments (for example, KDOT ) have used switchgrass in their seed mixes when re-establishing growth along roadways. It can also be used on strip mine sites, dikes, and pond dams. Conservation districts in many parts of

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5394-519: The grass. This reduces clinker formation and corrosion , and enables switchgrass to be a clean combustion fuel source for use in smaller combustion appliances. Fall harvested grasses likely have more application for larger commercial and industrial boilers. Switchgrass is also being used to heat small industrial and farm buildings in Germany and China through a process used to make a low quality natural gas substitute. Bai et al. (2010) conducted

5481-541: The growing season, and can grow taller than annuals. In doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs , tubers , woody crowns, rhizomes , turions , woody stems, or crowns which allows them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons; these structures typically store carbohydrates which are used once

5568-620: The hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennial plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants. Perennial species may produce relatively large seeds that have

5655-476: The land converted to crops such as corn , wheat , and oats . Introduced grasses such as fescue , bluegrass , and orchardgrass also replaced the native grasses for use as hay and pasture for cattle. Switchgrass is a versatile and adaptable plant. It can grow and even thrive in many weather conditions, lengths of growing seasons, soil types, and land conditions. Its distribution spans south of latitude 55°N from Saskatchewan to Nova Scotia , south over most of

5742-762: The lowland cultivars may appear to have a bunchgrass habit, while the upland types tend to be more sod-forming. Lowland cultivars appear more plastic in their morphology, produce larger plants if stands become thin or when planted in wide rows, and they seem to be more sensitive to moisture stress than upland cultivars. In native prairies, switchgrass is historically found in association with several other important native tallgrass prairie plants, such as big bluestem, indiangrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama , eastern gamagrass, and various forbs ( sunflowers , gayfeather , prairie clover , and prairie coneflower). These widely adapted tallgrass species once occupied millions of hectares. Switchgrass’ suitability for cultivation in

5829-516: The major discoveries of oil in Texas and spurred on by further discoveries in the Gulf waters, has been a vehicle for development in the central and western Gulf which has spawned development on a variety of fronts in these regions. Texas in particular has benefited tremendously from this industry over the course of the 20th century and economic diversification has made the state a magnet for population and home to more Fortune 500 companies than any other U.S. state. Florida has grown as well, driven to

5916-640: The more completely perennial vegetables are: Many aquatic plants are perennial even though many do not have woody tissue. Examples include: Gulf Coast The Gulf Coast of the United States , also known as the Gulf South or the South Coast , is the coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico . The coastal states that have a shoreline on

6003-483: The most developed cities in the region. The city had the third busiest port in the U.S. and its financial district was known as the "Wall Street of the South". Since then the Gulf Coast has been hit with numerous other hurricanes. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast as a Category 3 hurricane. It was the most damaging storm in the history of the United States, causing upwards of $ 80 billion in damages, and leaving over 1,800 dead. Again in 2008

6090-677: The plains of the United States that are now the Corn Belt , the effects of the past switchgrass habitat have been beneficial, lending to the fertile farmland that exists today. The deep fibrous root systems of switchgrass left a deep rich layer of organic matter in the soils of the Midwest, making those mollisol soils some of the most productive in the world. By returning switchgrass and other perennial prairie grasses as an agricultural crop, many marginal soils may benefit from increased levels of organic material, permeability, and fertility, due to

6177-409: The plants have been eaten down to about 25 cm, and to rest the pasture 30–45 days between grazing periods. Switchgrass becomes stemmy and unpalatable as it matures, but during the target grazing period, it is a favorable forage with a relative feed value (RFV) of 90–104. The grass's upright growth pattern places its growing point off the soil surface onto its stem, so leaving 25 cm of stubble

6264-408: The polymer. Such low accumulation rates do not, as of 2009, allow for commercial use of switchgrass as a biosource. Switchgrass is useful for soil conservation and amendment , particularly in the United States and Canada, where switchgrass is endemic. Switchgrass has a deep fibrous root system – nearly as deep as the plant is tall. Since it, along with other native grasses and forbs , once covered

6351-492: The prairies of the Midwestern United States, was once prime habitat to vast swaths of native grasses, including switchgrass, indiangrass ( Sorghastrum nutans ), eastern gamagrass ( Tripsacum dactyloides ), big bluestem ( Andropogon gerardi ), little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium ) and others. As European settlers began spreading west across the continent, the native grasses were plowed under and

6438-545: The region, it can typically produce 1/4 to 1/3 of its yield potential in its first year and 2/3 of its potential in the year after seeding. After establishment, switchgrass management will depend on the goal of the seeding. Historically, most switchgrass seedings have been managed for the Conservation Reserve Program in the US. Disturbance such as periodic mowing, burning, or disking is required to optimize

6525-461: The rigours of the local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in the soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/ subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass does not survive

6612-465: The seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass . A perennial rice developed in 2018, was reported in 2023, to have provided a similar yield to replanted annual rice when evaluated over eight consecutive harvests. Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only

6699-425: The specific conditions under which switchgrass causes harm to these species, but until more is discovered, it is recommended switchgrass not be fed to them. For cattle, however, it can be fed as hay, or grazed. Grazing switchgrass calls for watchful management practices to ensure survival of the stand. It is recommended that grazing begin when the plants are about 50 cm tall, and that grazing be discontinued when

6786-429: The stand's utility for encouraging biodiversity . Increased attention is being placed on switchgrass management as an energy crop . Generally, the crop requires modest application of nitrogen fertilizer , as it is not a heavy feeder. Typical nitrogen (N) content of senescent material in the fall is 0.5% N. Fertilizer nitrogen applications of about 5 kg N/ hectare (ha) applied for each tonne of biomass removed

6873-431: The stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winter. Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods. The meristem of perennial plants communicates with

6960-421: The transportation of the stored switchgrass to the ethanol plant where they assumed the distance was 20 km. The reductions in global warming potential by using E10 and E85 were 5 and 65%, respectively. Their models also suggested that the “human toxicity potential” and “eco-toxicity potential” were substantially greater for the high ethanol fuels (i.e., E85 and ethanol) than for gasoline and E10. In 2014,

7047-558: The upland cultivars, which are generally of more northern origin, more cold-tolerant, and therefore usually preferred in northern areas. Upland switchgrass types are generally shorter, at ≤ 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) tall, and less coarse than lowland types. Lowland cultivars may grow to ≥ 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) in favorable environments. Both upland and lowland cultivars are deeply rooted, > 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) in favorable soils, and have short rhizomes . The upland types tend to have more vigorous rhizomes, so

7134-430: The western Florida Panhandle , while the western portions of the Gulf Coast are made up of many barrier islands and peninsulas , including the 130-mile (210 km) Padre Island along the Texas coast. These landforms protect numerous bays and inlets providing as a barrier to oncoming waves. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, consists primarily of marshland. The eastern part of

7221-602: The wildlife inhabiting the switchgrass. Panicum virgatum cultivars are used as ornamental plants in gardens and landscaping. The following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit :- Perennial Perennials (especially small flowering plants ) that grow and bloom over the spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials . However, depending on

7308-405: The winter. There is also a class of evergreen perennials which lack woody stems, such as Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs , which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. Penstemon . The symbol for a perennial plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus , is [REDACTED] , which is also

7395-529: The year 2000 have not been met. The commercialization of cellulosic ethanol is thus proving to be a significant challenge, despite noteworthy research efforts. Thermal energy applications for switchgrass appear to be closer to near-term scale-up than cellulosic ethanol for industrial or small-scale applications. For example, switchgrass can be pressed into fuel pellets that are subsequently burned in pellet stoves used to heat homes (which typically burn corn or wood pellets ). Switchgrass has been widely tested as

7482-439: The year. Deciduous perennials include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy. Some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it

7569-439: Was the third most damaging storm in the history of the United States, causing more than $ 25 billion in damage along the coast, leaving hundreds of thousands of people homeless, and sparking the largest search-and-rescue operation in U.S. history. Other than the hurricanes, the Gulf Coast has redeveloped dramatically over the course of the 20th century. The gulf coast is highly populated. The petrochemical industry, launched with

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