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142-456: Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace ( / l ə ˈ p l ɑː s / ; French: [pjɛʁ simɔ̃ laplas] ; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French scholar whose work was important to the development of engineering , mathematics , statistics , physics , astronomy , and philosophy . He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique céleste ( Celestial Mechanics ) (1799–1825). This work translated

284-416: A barotropic two-dimensional sheet flow. Coriolis effects are introduced as well as lateral forcing by gravity. Laplace obtained these equations by simplifying the fluid dynamic equations. But they can also be derived from energy integrals via Lagrange's equation . For a fluid sheet of average thickness D , the vertical tidal elevation ζ , as well as the horizontal velocity components u and v (in

426-452: A hard cider . Cider is an ancient beverage. Evidence from pottery found shows that cider was made as early as 3000 B.C by the Celts. The first recorded reference to cider dates back to Julius Caesar 's first attempt to invade Britain in 55 BCE where he found the native Celts fermenting crabapples. He would take the discovery back through continental Europe with his retreating troops. In

568-439: A plane have polar coordinates ( r , θ) and ( r ', θ'), where r ' ≥ r , then, by elementary manipulation, the reciprocal of the distance between the points, d , can be written as: This expression can be expanded in powers of r / r ' using Newton's generalised binomial theorem to give: The sequence of functions P k (cos φ) is the set of so-called "associated Legendre functions" and their usefulness arises from

710-431: A Master's degree or PhD. In history, independent scholars can be differentiated from popular history hosts for television shows and amateur historians "by the level to which their publications utilize the analytical rigour and academic writing style". In previous centuries, some independent scholars achieved renown, such as Samuel Johnson and Edward Gibbon during the 18th century and Charles Darwin and Karl Marx in

852-399: A barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 20–30% alcohol by volume. Home production of applejack

994-512: A bottle if not filtered correctly. Artificial sweeteners can be used which are non-fermentable but some of these create an aftertaste, such as saccharin or sucralose, yet some of these are known for adding off flavour compounds. In 2014, a study found that a 1-US-pint (470 ml) bottle of mass-market cider contained 20.5 g (five teaspoons) of sugar, nearly the amount the WHO recommends as an adult's daily allowance of added sugar, and 5–10 times

1136-404: A cider is produced; this is the traditional method used for cider making, and many producers feel that the strains unique to their cidery contribute a sense of terroir to their product. Wild yeast populations can be incredibly diverse and commonly include species of Saccharomyces , Candida , Pichia , Hanseniaspora and Metschnikowia . Typically, the native yeast take up residence in

1278-424: A cider mill. Cider mills were traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power. In modern times, they are likely to be powered by electricity. The pulp is then transferred to a cider press where the juice is extracted. Traditionally, the method for squeezing the juice from the apple pulp involves placing sweet straw or haircloths between stacked layers of apple pulp. Today, apples can be quickly pressed on

1420-448: A clear cider without any need for filtration. Both sparkling and still ciders are made; the sparkling variety is the more common. Modern, mass-produced ciders closely resemble sparkling wine in appearance. More traditional brands tend to be darker and cloudier. They are often stronger than the mass-produced varieties and taste more strongly of apples. Almost colourless, white cider has the same apple juice content as conventional cider but

1562-455: A common tannin present in cider is Procyanidin B2 . The acids in cider play a vital role in both the cider making process and in the final flavour of a finished cider. They are present in both apples and cider, and add a sour taste and a pungent odor to these respective substances. Acids also serve as a preservative in the cider since microbes grow less in lower pH environments and contribute to

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1704-509: A few centimeters. Measurements from the CHAMP satellite closely match the models based on the TOPEX data. Accurate models of tides worldwide are essential for research since the variations due to tides must be removed from measurements when calculating gravity and changes in sea levels. In 1776, Laplace formulated a single set of linear partial differential equations , for tidal flow described as

1846-413: A few days later, d'Alembert was even less friendly and did not hide his opinion that it was impossible that Laplace could have read and understood the book. But upon questioning him, he realised that it was true, and from that time he took Laplace under his care. Another account is that Laplace solved overnight a problem that d'Alembert set him for submission the following week, then solved a harder problem

1988-450: A gainfully employed partner". To get access to libraries and other research facilities, independent scholars have to seek permission from universities. Writer Megan Kate Nelson's article "Stop Calling Me Independent" says the term "marginalizes unaffiliated scholars" and is unfairly seen as an indicator of "professional failure". Rebecca Bodenheimer says that independent scholars, like herself, attending conferences and who also do not have

2130-673: A high crop load because the nitrogen in more concentrated in the low number of apples instead of being distributed to many apples. While a sufficient amount of YAN is good for the yeast and ensures fermentation of the sugars in the juice to alcohol, some cider makers may choose to limit nitrogen because it is the limiting factor. When the yeast are starved for nitrogen, they stop fermenting and die off. This can be desirable if cider makers prefer their cider to have some more sugar than alcohol in their cider. However, limiting YAN should be done in moderation because too little nitrogen can lead to an increase in hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) production which

2272-402: A mechanized belt press. The juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks. The remaining solids ( pomace ) are given to farm animals as winter feed, composted, discarded or used to make liqueurs . Fermentation of ciders occurs by a very similar mechanism to the fermentation of wine. The process of alcoholic fermentation is characterised by

2414-544: A memoir in which he first explored the possible influences of a purported luminiferous ether or of a law of gravitation that did not act instantaneously. He ultimately returned to an intellectual investment in Newtonian gravity. Euler and Lagrange had made a practical approximation by ignoring small terms in the equations of motion. Laplace noted that though the terms themselves were small, when integrated over time they could become important. Laplace carried his analysis into

2556-526: A mix of eating and cider apples (as in Kent , England), or exclusively cider apples (as in the West Country , England) and West of England . There are many hundreds of varieties of cultivars developed specifically for cider making. Once the apples are gathered from trees in orchards they are scratted (ground down) into a pulp. Historically this was done using pressing stones with circular troughs, or by

2698-575: A phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of almost all of his contemporaries. He was Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon graduated from the École Militaire in Paris in 1785. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817, after the Bourbon Restoration . Some details of Laplace's life are not known, as records of it were burned in 1925 with

2840-590: A place in astronomical tables." The result is embodied in the Exposition du système du monde and the Mécanique céleste . The former was published in 1796, and gives a general explanation of the phenomena, but omits all details. It contains a summary of the history of astronomy. This summary procured for its author the honour of admission to the forty of the French Academy and is commonly esteemed one of

2982-464: A position in a university or other institution. While independent scholars may earn an income from part-time teaching, speaking engagements, or consultant work, the University of British Columbia calls earning an income the biggest challenge of being an independent scholar. Due to challenges of making a living as a scholar without an academic position, "[m]any independent scholars depend on having

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3124-464: A potential occurs in fluid dynamics , electromagnetism and other areas. Rouse Ball speculated that it might be seen as "the outward sign" of one of the a priori forms in Kant's theory of perception . The spherical harmonics turn out to be critical to practical solutions of Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates , such as are used for mapping the sky, can be simplified, using

3266-406: A prize to Fresnel for his new approach. Using corpuscular theory, Laplace also came close to propounding the concept of the black hole . He suggested that gravity could influence light and that there could be massive stars whose gravity is so great that not even light could escape from their surface (see escape velocity ). However, this insight was so far ahead of its time that it played no role in

3408-408: A protective layer, reducing air contact. This final fermentation creates a small amount of carbonation . Extra sugar may be added specifically for this purpose. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains too cloudy. Apple-based juice may also be combined with fruit to make a fine cider; fruit purées or flavourings can be added, such as grape, cherry , raspberry , or cranberry . The cider

3550-612: A raw self-taught country lad with only a peasant background! In 1765 at the age of sixteen Laplace left the "School of the Duke of Orleans" in Beaumont and went to the University of Caen , where he appears to have studied for five years and was a member of the Sphinx. The École Militaire of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776. His parents, Pierre Laplace and Marie-Anne Sochon, were from comfortable families. The Laplace family

3692-534: A recipe calling for quince cider. Before the development of rapid long-distance transportation, regions of cider consumption generally coincided with those of cider production. As such, cider was said to be more common than wine in 12th-century Galicia and certainly the idea of it was present in England by the Conquest of 1066, using crab apples: the word "Wassail" is derived from a Saxon phrase, "wæs hæil": it

3834-429: A scholar can not be focused on a single discipline, contending that knowledge of multiple disciplines is necessary to put each into context and to inform the development of each: [T]o be a scholar involves more than mere learning... A genuine scholar possesses something more: he penetrates and understands the principle and laws of the particular department of human knowledge with which he professes acquaintance. He imbibes

3976-466: A second fermentation increases the ethanol content of the resulting beverage. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% to 8.5% ABV or more in traditional English ciders, and 3.5% to 12% in continental ciders. In UK law, it must contain at least 35% apple juice (fresh or from concentrate), although CAMRA (the Campaign for Real Ale) says that "real cider" must be at least 90% fresh apple juice . In

4118-692: A significant source of off odors in the finished product. Brettanomyces species produce volatile phenols , especially 4-ethyl phenol , which impart a distinct aroma called "Bretty", typically described as "barnyard", "horsey", or "bandaid". While these aromas would be considered spoilage odors in wines, many cider producers and consumers do not consider them a fault. Yeast species like Hanseniaspora uvarum , Metschnikowia pulcherrima , Saccharomyces uvarum , Zygosaccharomyces cidri , Candida pomicole , and Pichia membranifaciens have also been found to produce enzymes linked to generation of spoilage odors. The western British tradition of wassailing

4260-473: A similar problem though he was using Newtonian-type geometric reasoning. Laplace described Clairaut's work as being "in the class of the most beautiful mathematical productions". However, Rouse Ball alleges that the idea "was appropriated from Joseph Louis Lagrange , who had used it in his memoirs of 1773, 1777 and 1780". The term "potential" itself was due to Daniel Bernoulli , who introduced it in his 1738 memoire Hydrodynamica . However, according to Rouse Ball,

4402-551: A single recipe for fermenting apples but rather includes them as part of main courses, especially accompanying pork. In Austria, cider is made in the southwest of Lower Austria , the so-called " Mostviertel " and in Upper Austria as well as in parts of Styria . Almost every farmer there has some apple or pear trees. Many farmers also have a kind of inn called a "Mostheuriger", similar to a heuriger for new wine, where they serve cider and traditional fare. Non-sparkling cider

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4544-533: A somewhat similar sense of prestige in the United States , with an exception that research professors in the U.S. are often non-permanent positions, that must fund their salaries from external sources. This is not the case in most other countries. An independent scholar is anyone who conducts scholarly research outside universities and traditional academia . In 2010, twelve percent of US history scholars were independent. Independent scholars typically have

4686-550: A son, Charles-Émile (1789–1874), and a daughter, Sophie-Suzanne (1792–1813). Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with differential equations and finite differences but he was already starting to think about the mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics. However, before his election to the Académie in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that would establish his reputation. The first, Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements

4828-401: A sour profile. Ice ciders can be made by using pre-pressed frozen juice or frozen whole apples. Whole apples either come frozen from the orchard, dependent on harvest date, or are stored in a freezer prior to pressing. When the pre-pressed juice or whole apples freeze, sugars are concentrated and mostly separated from the water. Whole apples are then pressed to extract the concentrated juice. For

4970-794: A strong aromatic and flavour character of apple, while drier and higher alcohol ciders will tend to produce a wider range of fruity aromas and flavours. Modern ciders vary in color from pale to yellow and can range from brilliant to a hazy clarity. Clarity can be altered through various cider making practices, depending on the cider maker's intentions. Heritage ciders are made from both culinary and cider apples, including bittersweet, bittersharp, heirlooms, wild apples, and crabapples. Common apples used in heritage cider production include Dabinett , Kingston Black , Roxbury Russet , and Wickson . Heritage ciders are higher in tannins than modern ciders. They range in colour from yellow to amber ranging from brilliant to hazy. Clarity of heritage ciders also depends on

5112-411: A sweet, low-alcohol "cidre" taking advantage of the sweeter apples and the keeving process. Cider styles evolved based on the methods used, the apples available and local tastes. Production techniques developed, as with most technology, by trial and error. In fact, the variables were nearly too widespread to track, including: spontaneous fermentation, the type of vessels used, environmental conditions, and

5254-410: A university name on their official name badge, feel like the "independent scholar" term is perceived as a "signal that a scholar is either unwanted by the academy or unwilling to commit to the sacrifices necessary to succeed as an academic". Cider Cider ( / ˈ s aɪ d ər / SY -dər ) is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of apples . Cider is widely available in

5396-543: Is a traditional method of fermentation with low amounts of nitrogen in French and English ciders that is intended to slow down the rate of fermentation in hopes of retaining high esters as well as retaining some residual sugar in the bottled cider to increase effervescence in the aging process. Ciders can be back sweetened, after fermentation is complete to add a sweet taste and balance out acids, tannins, and bitterness. Natural sugar can be used but this can restart fermentation in

5538-597: Is also named after him. He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the Solar System and was one of the first scientists to suggest an idea similar to that of a black hole , with Stephen Hawking stating that "Laplace essentially predicted the existence of black holes". Laplace is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France , he has been described as possessing

5680-761: Is called poiré in France and produced mostly in Lower Normandy there. A branded sweet perry known as Babycham , marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature champagne-style bottles, was once popular in the UK but has become unfashionable. Another related drink is a form of mead , known as cyser . Cyser is a blend of honey and apple juice fermented together. Although not widely made in modern times, various other pome fruits can produce palatable drinks. Apicius , in Book II of De re coquinaria , includes

5822-414: Is carried out at a temperature of 4–16 °C (39–61 °F). This temperature would be low for most kinds of fermentation, but is beneficial for cider, as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Fermentation can occur due to natural yeasts that are present in the must; alternately, some cider makers add cultivated strains of cider yeast, such as Saccharomyces bayanus . During

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5964-446: Is common for ciders to be fermented to dryness, although that is not always the case. Fermentations will carry on until the fermentation is stopped or the yeasts run out of nutrients and can no longer metabolise, resulting in a "stuck" fermentation. Steps taken before fermentation might include fruit or juice blending, titratable acidity and pH measurements and sometimes adjustments, and sulfur dioxide and yeast additions. Fermentation

6106-403: Is critical to the quality of the final product. As with other fermented beverages, like wine and beer, the strain of yeast used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation also converts precursor molecules into the odorants found in the final product. In general, two broad categories of yeast are used for cider making: commercially developed strains and wild, or autochthonous, strains. In either case,

6248-491: Is discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities. Sir Isaac Newton had published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 in which he gave a derivation of Kepler's laws , which describe the motion of the planets, from his laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation . However, though Newton had privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published work used cumbersome geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for

6390-479: Is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment. Some home brewers use beer bottles, which work perfectly well, and are inexpensive. This allows the cider to become naturally carbonated. Tannins are crucial flavour compounds in cider. Since perfecting the tannin content in the cider is needed for optimal success, the tannins or "polyphenols of apples are largely implicated in cider quality." They are important because they control

6532-485: Is harder to create because the cider maker has to blend various apples to create a clearer liquid. White ciders tend to be sweeter and more refreshing. They are typically 7–8%  ABV in strength. Black cider, by contrast, is dry amber cider which has an alcohol content of 7–8% ABV. The word cider is first mentioned in Middle English in biblical use as sicer / ciser "strong drink", "strong liquor" in

6674-601: Is made throughout Normandy , France, not just in the Calvados département . It is made from cider by double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28–30% alcohol. After the second pass, the concentration of alcohol is about 40%. Applejack is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of freeze distillation or by true evaporative distillation . In traditional freeze distillation,

6816-521: Is mainly historical, but it gives as appendices the results of Laplace's latest researches. The Mécanique céleste contains numerous of Laplace's own investigations but many results are appropriated from other writers with little or no acknowledgement. The volume's conclusions, which are described by historians as the organised result of a century of work by other writers as well as Laplace, are presented by Laplace if they were his discoveries alone. Jean-Baptiste Biot , who assisted Laplace in revising it for

6958-410: Is persistent in her quest for developing knowledge, is systematic, has unconditional integrity, has intellectual honesty, has some convictions, and stands alone to support these convictions. Scholars may rely on the scholarly method or scholarship, a body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as valid and trustworthy as possible, and to make them known to

7100-599: Is popular in Europe. Ice cider (French: cidre de glace ), originating in Quebec and inspired by ice wine , has become a Canadian speciality, now also being produced in England. For this product, the apples are frozen either before or after being harvested. Its alcohol concentration is 9–13% ABV . Cidre de glace is considered a local speciality in Quebec and can fetch high prices on the international market. In Canada, ice cider

7242-528: Is produced by natural, outdoor freezing. In Europe and the United States, a similar product may be achieved through artificial, interior freezing, though often not under the name 'ice cider.' Pommeau , a popular apéritif in Normandy, is a drink produced by blending unfermented apple juice and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit prevents fermentation of the juice and

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7384-420: Is ready to drink after a three-month fermentation period, although it is more often matured in the vats for up to three years. For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the champagne method , but this

7526-1091: Is responsible for a rotten egg-like smell. Primary cider fermentation can be initiated by inoculating the cider must with selected yeast strains or by permitting indigenous yeast strains present on the fruit and in the cider production equipment to spontaneously commence fermentation without inoculation. Inoculation with different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other yeast strains with strong fermentative metabolism traits, including Saccharomyces bayanus and Torulaspora delbrueckii strains, has been shown to produce few differences in cider phenolic compounds, save for concentrations of phloretin (see Phloretin ) in samples that underwent malolactic fermentation. Spontaneous fermentation commenced by indigenous yeasts and finished by Saccharomyces cerevisiae can produce ciders with similar concentrations of important non-volatile acids , including lactic acid, succinic acid and acetic acid, while concentrations of volatile compounds such as methanol and 1-butanol, were present in different concentrations, dependent on apple cultivar. Extending

7668-472: Is the Canadian Academy of Independent Scholars (in association with Simon Fraser University ). Similar organizations exist around the world. Membership in a professional association generally entails a degree of post-secondary education and established research. When independent scholars participate in academic conferences, they may be referred to as an unaffiliated scholar, since they do not hold

7810-679: Is the cidery. Indigenous yeast strain population dynamics are affected by climatic conditions, apple variety, geographic location, and cider making technologies used. These variables cause different regions to host unique endemic yeast populations. The particular composition of endemic yeast strains and the yeast's activity during fermentation are responsible for the unique characteristics of ciders produced in certain regions. Unique autochthonous yeast populations promote different compositions of volatile flavour compounds, which form distinct tastes, aromas, and mouthfeel in finished ciders. Using wild yeast populations for fermentation introduces variability to

7952-575: Is what would have been said by Saxons as a toast at Yuletide . Southern Italy, by contrast, though indeed possessing apples, had no tradition for cider apples at all and like its other neighbours on the Mediterranean Sea preserved the Roman tradition of apples as an ingredient for desserts, as evidenced by the frescoes at Herculaneum and Pompeii, descriptions by Classical writers and playwrights, and Apicius , whose famous cookbook does not contain

8094-419: The Académie . Laplace seems to have regarded analysis merely as a means of attacking physical problems, though the ability with which he invented the necessary analysis is almost phenomenal. As long as his results were true he took but little trouble to explain the steps by which he arrived at them; he never studied elegance or symmetry in his processes, and it was sufficient for him if he could by any means solve

8236-641: The French Academy of Sciences . However, that year admission went to Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde and in 1772 to Jacques Antoine Joseph Cousin. Laplace was disgruntled, and early in 1773 d'Alembert wrote to Lagrange in Berlin to ask if a position could be found for Laplace there. However, Condorcet became permanent secretary of the Académie in February and Laplace was elected associate member on 31 March, at age 24. In 1773 Laplace read his paper on

8378-501: The antimicrobial environment in the juice, while the bisulfite and sulfite ions contribute to flavour. The quantity of sulfur dioxide needed to inhibit microbial activity is directly related to the pH of the juice; lower pH means less should be added, while higher pH juice requires more. Many cider producers add sulfur dioxide immediately after pressing and juicing, but before fermentation. However, in some cases it can be added afterwards to act as an antioxidant or stabiliser. This prevents

8520-543: The astringency and bitterness of the cider. Tannins are necessary components to focus on when producing cider because the length of the aftertaste of the cider (astringency) and bitterness are both strong chemicals that affect people's opinion on the cider. Tannins are polyphenol compounds that are naturally occurring in apples. Depending on the type of cider apple the producer is using, the tannin levels will be different. The more well-known ciders typically have lower tannin levels while traditional ciders have more. One example of

8662-598: The chungin (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie , composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. In his 1847 address, Emmanuel Vogel Gerhart asserted that scholars have an obligation to rigorously continue their studies, so as to remain aware of new knowledge being generated, and to contribute their own insights to

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8804-445: The curl to find an equation for vorticity . Under certain conditions this can be further rewritten as a conservation of vorticity. During the years 1784–1787 he published some papers of exceptional power. Prominent among these is one read in 1783, reprinted as Part II of Théorie du Mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes in 1784, and in the third volume of the Mécanique céleste . In this work, Laplace completely determined

8946-407: The latitude φ and longitude λ directions, respectively) satisfy Laplace's tidal equations : where Ω is the angular frequency of the planet's rotation, g is the planet's gravitational acceleration at the mean ocean surface, a is the planetary radius, and U is the external gravitational tidal-forcing potential . William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) rewrote Laplace's momentum terms using

9088-527: The literati : the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the Republic of Letters , which evolved into the salon aimed at edification, education, and cultural refinement. In the United States, a professional association exists for independent scholars: this association is the National Coalition of Independent Scholars . In Canada, the equivalent professional association

9230-493: The velocity potential of a fluid had been obtained some years previously by Leonhard Euler . Laplace's subsequent work on gravitational attraction was based on this result. The quantity ∇ V has been termed the concentration of V and its value at any point indicates the "excess" of the value of V there over its mean value in the neighbourhood of the point. Laplace's equation , a special case of Poisson's equation , appears ubiquitously in mathematical physics. The concept of

9372-513: The 13th century and as sither(e) / cidre "liquor made from the juice of fruits" → "beverage made from apples" in the 14th century. It was probably first borrowed from Old French primitive form sizre " fermented beverage " ( Eadwine Psalter , LXVIII, 14) and then from another younger French form cistre , later sidre , cidre "beverage made from fruits". The specific meaning "fermented beverage from apples" appears in Old French for

9514-412: The 19th century, and Sigmund Freud , Sir Steven Runciman , Robert Davidsohn and Nancy Sandars in the 20th century. There was also a tradition of the man of letters , such as Evelyn Waugh . The term "man of letters" derives from the French term belletrist or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic". In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist(s) came to be applied to

9656-474: The Champenoise method used to produce champagne. Use of different strains of indigenous Saccharomyces to perform secondary fermentation produced ciders with consistent alcohol and acidic characteristics, variable glycerol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol, propanol, i -butanol and 2-phenylethanol characteristics and acceptable sensory analysis results. The selection of yeast used for cider production

9798-512: The Jupiter–Saturn system because of the near approach to commensurability of the mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn. In this context commensurability means that the ratio of the two planets' mean motions is very nearly equal to a ratio between a pair of small whole numbers. Two periods of Saturn's orbit around the Sun almost equal five of Jupiter's. The corresponding difference between multiples of

9940-405: The Solar System is given in his Mécanique céleste published in five volumes. The first two volumes, published in 1799, contain methods for calculating the motions of the planets, determining their figures, and resolving tidal problems. The third and fourth volumes, published in 1802 and 1805, contain applications of these methods, and several astronomical tables. The fifth volume, published in 1825,

10082-898: The UK and its former colonies, cider is popular in Portugal (mainly in Minho and Madeira ), France (particularly Normandy and Brittany ), Friuli , and northern Spain (specifically Asturias and Basque Country ). Germany also has its own types of cider with Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse producing a particularly tart version known as Apfelwein . In the U.S. and Canada, varieties of alcoholic cider are often called hard cider to distinguish it from non-alcoholic apple cider or "sweet cider", also made from apples. In Canada, cider cannot contain less than 2.5% or over 13% absolute alcohol by volume. The juice of most varieties of apple, including crab apples , can be used to make cider, but cider apples are best. The addition of sugar or extra fruit before

10224-604: The US, there is a 50% minimum. In France, cider must be made solely from apples. Perry is a similar product to cider made by fermenting pear juice . When distilled, cider turns into fruit brandy . The flavour of cider varies. Ciders can be classified from dry to sweet. Their appearance ranges from cloudy with sediment to completely clear, and their colour ranges from almost colourless to amber to brown. The variations in clarity and colour are mostly due to filtering between pressing and fermentation . Some apple varieties will produce

10366-903: The USACM Cider Style Guide, specialty styles include: fruit, hopped, spiced, wood-aged, sour, and iced ciders. Fruit ciders have other fruit or juices added before or after fermentation, such as cherries, blueberries and cranberries. Hopped cider is fermented with added hops , common hop varieties being Cascade , Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic. Spiced ciders have various spices added to the cider before, during, or after fermentation. Spices like cinnamon and ginger are popular to use in production. Wood-aged ciders are ciders that are either fermented or aged in various types of wood barrels, to aid in extraction of woody, earthy flavours. Sour ciders are high acid ciders that are produced with non-standard, non- Saccharomyces yeast and bacteria, which enhance acetic and lactic acid production, to reach

10508-533: The United Kingdom (particularly in the West Country ) and Ireland. The UK has the world's highest per capita consumption, as well as the largest cider-producing companies. Ciders from the South West of England are generally higher in alcoholic content. Cider is also popular in many Commonwealth countries , such as India, South Africa, Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and New England . As well as

10650-471: The addition of food-grade red dyes, previously used red grape skins, like Marquette with high anthocyanin concentration, red fruits, rose petals, or hibiscus . Lastly, sparkling ciders can be produced through methods of direct carbonation, addition of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) or by Méthode Champenoise to re-create the traditional Champagne style. Apples grown for consumption are suitable for cider making, though some regional cider-makers prefer to use

10792-471: The aid of Laplace's discoveries, the tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn could at last be made much more accurate. It was on the basis of Laplace's theory that Delambre computed his astronomical tables. Laplace now set himself the task to write a work which should "offer a complete solution of the great mechanical problem presented by the Solar System, and bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical equations should no longer find

10934-471: The amount of sugar in lager or ale . An important component in cider-making is the addition of sulfur dioxide to inhibit the growth of many spoilage bacteria or yeasts in the juice. This encourages the inoculated yeast to dominate the juice environment, converting sugars to alcohol. Once sulfur dioxide dissolves in the juice, it converts into a pH dependent mixture of bisulfite, sulfite ions, and molecular sulfur dioxide. The "unbound" sulfur dioxide provides

11076-801: The apple trees and making an offering of cider and bread in Autumn to protect the fertility of the orchard appears to be a relatively ancient tradition, superficially dating back to the pre-Christian Early Medieval period. The autumn tradition of ' bobbing ' for apples is due to the abundance of fruit at this time. A modern cider festival is an organised event that promotes cider and (usually) perry . A variety of ciders and perries will be available for tasting and buying. Such festivals may be organised by pubs , cider producers, or cider-promoting private organisations. Calvados and applejack are strong liquors distilled from cider. They differ in their geographical origin and their method of distillation. Calvados

11218-540: The apple varieties. Refinements came much later when cider became a commercial product and the process was better understood. However, since there is growing popularity in ciders, the production of specialty styles has begun to increase. Modern ciders are made from culinary apples and are lower in tannins and higher in acidity than other cider styles. Common culinary apples used in modern ciders include McIntosh , Golden Delicious , Jonagold , Granny Smith , Gala , and Fuji . A sweet or low alcohol cider may tend to have

11360-442: The attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is memorable for the introduction into analysis of spherical harmonics or Laplace's coefficients , and also for the development of the use of what we would now call the gravitational potential in celestial mechanics . In 1783, in a paper sent to the Académie , Adrien-Marie Legendre had introduced what are now known as associated Legendre functions . If two points in

11502-404: The attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is known for the introduction into analysis of the potential, a useful mathematical concept of broad applicability to the physical sciences. Laplace was a supporter of the corpuscle theory of light of Newton. In the fourth edition of Mécanique Céleste , Laplace assumed that short-ranged molecular forces were responsible for refraction of

11644-432: The blend takes on the character of the aged barrel). Cocktails may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite , an example is Black Velvet in a version of which cider may replace champagne. Cider may also be used to make vinegar. Apple cider vinegar is noted for its high acidity and flavour. Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is made from fermented pear juice, known as perry . It

11786-482: The body of knowledge available to all: The progress of science involves momentous interests. It merits the attention of all sincere lovers of truth. Every ...scholar is under obligations to contribute towards the ever-progressive unfolding of its riches and power. [They]...should combine their energies to bring to view what has eluded the keen vision of those men of noble intellectual stature who have lived and died before them. Many scholars are also professors engaged in

11928-415: The church and became an atheist. Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond d'Alembert who at that time was supreme in scientific circles. According to his great-great-grandson, d'Alembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a thick mathematics book, saying to come back when he had read it. When Laplace came back

12070-430: The cider making practices used and will differ by cider maker as well. In Canada, some cideries market " Loyalist -style" ciders, which are notably dry and made with McIntosh apples, a Canadian heritage varietal. Specialty style ciders are open to a lot more manipulation than modern or heritage style ciders. There is no restriction to apple varieties used and the list of specialty styles continues to expand. Listed on

12212-432: The cider making process that makes it more difficult to generate multiple batches of cider that retain consistent characteristics. Aside from carrying out the primary fermentation of cider, yeast may also play other roles in cider production. The production of sparkling cider requires a second round of fermentation, and a second yeast selection. The yeast used for the secondary fermentation in sparkling cider production serve

12354-404: The cider market, ciders can be broken down into two main styles, standard and specialty. The first group consists of modern ciders and heritage ciders. Modern ciders are produced from culinary apples such as Gala . Heritage ciders are produced from heritage, cider specific, crab or wild apples, like Golden Russet . Historically, cider was made from the only resources available to make it, so style

12496-404: The cidery, and can be important to the unique flavour of the product. Although it was once believed that the native yeast carrying out these spontaneous fermentations also came from the orchard itself, research has shown that the microbes cultured from apples in the orchard do not align with the microbes found during the various stages of fermentation, suggesting that the sole source of native yeast

12638-428: The conversion of simple sugars into ethanol by yeasts, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae . This is because, as "Crabtree positive" yeasts, they produce ethanol even during aerobic fermentation; in contrast, Crabtree-negative yeasts produce only biomass and carbon dioxide. This adaptation allows them a competitive edge in the fermentation of ciders due to their high alcohol tolerance, and because of this tolerance, it

12780-425: The corpuscles of light. Laplace and Étienne-Louis Malus also showed that Huygens principle of double refraction could be recovered from the principle of least action on light particles. However in 1815, Augustin-Jean Fresnel presented a new a wave theory for diffraction to a commission of the French Academy with the help of François Arago . Laplace was one of the commission members and they ultimately awarded

12922-480: The details. The work was carried forward in a more finely tuned form in Félix Tisserand 's Traité de mécanique céleste (1889–1896), but Laplace's treatise remains a standard authority. In the years 1784–1787, Laplace produced some memoirs of exceptional power. The significant among these was one issued in 1784, and reprinted in the third volume of the Mécanique céleste . In this work he completely determined

13064-555: The development of the theory, are not sufficiently precise to demonstrate the stability of the Solar System ; today the Solar System is understood to be generally chaotic at fine scales, although currently fairly stable on coarse scale. One particular problem from observational astronomy was the apparent instability whereby Jupiter's orbit appeared to be shrinking while that of Saturn was expanding. The problem had been tackled by Leonhard Euler in 1748, and Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1763, but without success. In 1776, Laplace published

13206-458: The different Romance languages : Spanish, Portuguese sidra , Italian sidro , etc., in the Germanic languages : German Zider , etc. are all from French and Breton chistr , Welsh seidr (through an English form) probably too. By the 19th century, cider referred to the expressed juice of apples, either before fermentation as sweet cider , or after fermentation,

13348-409: The fact that every function of the points on a circle can be expanded as a series of them. Laplace, with scant regard for credit to Legendre, made the non-trivial extension of the result to three dimensions to yield a more general set of functions, the spherical harmonics or Laplace coefficients . The latter term is not in common use now. This paper is also remarkable for the development of

13490-601: The family château in Saint Julien de Mailloc , near Lisieux , the home of his great-great-grandson the Comte de Colbert-Laplace. Others had been destroyed earlier, when his house at Arcueil near Paris was looted in 1871. Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge , Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont l'Évêque . According to W. W. Rouse Ball , his father, Pierre de Laplace, owned and farmed

13632-402: The fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is "racked" ( siphoned ) into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point, it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so vats are filled completely to exclude air. The fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that forms

13774-436: The fermentation has finished. Some researchers have also suggested that non-Saccharomyces yeasts could be used to release additional flavour or mouthfeel compounds, as they may contain enzymes, such as β-glucosidase , β-xylosidase , or polygalacturonase , which Saccharomyces yeast may not produce. Not all yeast associated with cider production are necessary for fermentation; many are considered spoilage microbes and can be

13916-443: The fermentation process. Most ciders have a pH of between 3.3 and 4.1. The primary acid found in apples is malic acid which accounts for around 90% of the acid content in apples. Malic acid contributes to the tart and sour flavours found in cider, and typically between 4.5 and 7.5 grams of malic acid per litre of cider is preferred. Malic acid is also used to determine apple ripeness for harvesting, as its concentration decreases as

14058-543: The finished cider from releasing hydrogen peroxide or aldehydes that produce "off" odors and flavours. Nitrogen is also a very important nutrient supporting yeast growth and fermentation in cider. Yeast require different forms of nitrogen to take up and use themselves so nitrogenous compounds are often added to apple juice. The mixture of nitrogen-containing compounds that yeast can use are referred to as 'Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen', or YAN. Even though YAN can be added into juice before fermentation, there are other ways to affect

14200-657: The first time by the Norman chronicler Wace in 1130 / 1140 (Wace, conception de Nostre Dame ). The Old French word * cisre ( sizre ) is from Gallo-Romance * cisera found in Medieval Latin by the English author Alexander Neckam (Neckam, De nominibus utensilium ). It is an altered form of Church Latin sicera "fermented drink", itself borrowed from Greek sīkéra , ultimately from Hebrew šēkār , "intoxicating liquor". The cognates in

14342-464: The following night. D'Alembert was impressed and recommended him for a teaching place in the École Militaire . With a secure income and undemanding teaching, Laplace now threw himself into original research and for the next seventeen years, 1771–1787, he produced much of his original work in astronomy. From 1780 to 1784, Laplace and French chemist Antoine Lavoisier collaborated on several experimental investigations, designing their own equipment for

14484-471: The fruit ripens. Lactic acid is also commonly found in cider, and it is mainly formed from malo-lactic fermentation, a process that converts malic acid into lactic acid. This process rounds out the flavour of the cider while reducing a lot of the acidity and producing carbon dioxide as well. Other acids such as citric acid can be used to add taste after fermentation, but these acids are not typically found in high concentration in apples naturally. Most of

14626-568: The geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus , opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace. Laplace formulated Laplace's equation , and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics , a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator , widely used in mathematics,

14768-434: The higher-order terms, up to and including the cubic . Using this more exact analysis, Laplace concluded that any two planets and the Sun must be in mutual equilibrium and thereby launched his work on the stability of the Solar System. Gerald James Whitrow described the achievement as "the most important advance in physical astronomy since Newton". Laplace had a wide knowledge of all sciences and dominated all discussions in

14910-445: The history of scientific development. Scholar In contemporary English usage, the term scholar sometimes is equivalent to the term academic , and describes a university-educated individual who has achieved intellectual mastery of an academic discipline, as instructor and as researcher. Moreover, before the establishment of universities, the term scholar identified and described an intellectual person whose primary occupation

15052-401: The hypothesis, the Solar System evolved from a globular mass of incandescent gas rotating around an axis through its centre of mass . As it cooled, this mass contracted, and successive rings broke off from its outer edge. These rings in their turn cooled, and finally condensed into the planets, while the Sun represented the central core which was still left. On this view, Laplace predicted that

15194-404: The idea of the scalar potential . The gravitational force acting on a body is, in modern language, a vector , having magnitude and direction. A potential function is a scalar function that defines how the vectors will behave. A scalar function is computationally and conceptually easier to deal with than a vector function. Alexis Clairaut had first suggested the idea in 1743 while working on

15336-441: The identification and explanation of the perturbations now known as the "great Jupiter–Saturn inequality". Laplace solved a longstanding problem in the study and prediction of the movements of these planets. He showed by general considerations, first, that the mutual action of two planets could never cause large changes in the eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits; but then, even more importantly, that peculiarities arose in

15478-471: The initial stages of fermentation, there are elevated levels of carbon dioxide as the yeasts multiply and begin to break down the sugar into ethanol. In addition to fermentative metabolism of yeast, certain organoleptic compounds are formed that have an effect on the quality of cider, such as other alcohols, esters and other volatile compounds. After fermentation, racking occurs into a clean vessel, trying to leave behind as much yeast as possible. Shortly before

15620-516: The invariability of planetary motion in front of the Academy des Sciences. That March he was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science. On 15 March 1788, at the age of thirty-nine, Laplace married Marie-Charlotte de Courty de Romanges, an eighteen-year-old girl from a "good" family in Besançon . The wedding was celebrated at Saint-Sulpice, Paris . The couple had

15762-407: The juice, or they may select yeast that contribute mouthfeel or specific aromas to the cider. "Wild fermentations" occur when autochthonous yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation; indigenous yeasts can spontaneously initiate fermentation without any addition of other yeast strains by the cider maker. Autochthonous yeasts are wild yeast strains that are endemic to the specific location in which

15904-487: The large amphidromic systems in the world's ocean basins and explains the oceanic tides that are actually observed. The equilibrium theory, based on the gravitational gradient from the Sun and Moon but ignoring the Earth's rotation, the effects of continents, and other important effects, could not explain the real ocean tides. Since measurements have confirmed the theory, many things have possible explanations now, like how

16046-406: The levels of nitrogen in the juice before pressing, like the maturity of the orchard or what type of fertiliser is used. Using a fertiliser with a good amount of nitrogen will help the roots of apple trees; nitrogen fixing bacteria on the roots will be able to provide the tree with more nitrogen that will be able to make its way into the fruit. A low crop load can also yield juices with more YAN than

16188-434: The life of Science... [and] his mind is transfused and moulded by its energy and spirit. A 2011 examination outlined the following attributes commonly accorded to scholars as "described by many writers, with some slight variations in the definition": The common themes are that a scholar is a person who has a high intellectual ability, is an independent thinker and an independent actor, has ideas that stand apart from others,

16330-415: The masterpieces of French literature, though it is not altogether reliable for the later periods of which it treats. Laplace developed the nebular hypothesis of the formation of the Solar System, first suggested by Emanuel Swedenborg and expanded by Immanuel Kant . This hypothesis remains the most widely accepted model in the study of the origin of planetary systems. According to Laplace's description of

16472-495: The mean motions, (2 n J − 5 n S ) , corresponds to a period of nearly 900 years, and it occurs as a small divisor in the integration of a very small perturbing force with this same period. As a result, the integrated perturbations with this period are disproportionately large, about 0.8° degrees of arc in orbital longitude for Saturn and about 0.3° for Jupiter. Further developments of these theorems on planetary motion were given in his two memoirs of 1788 and 1789, but with

16614-416: The method of separation of variables into a radial part, depending solely on distance from the centre point, and an angular or spherical part. The solution to the spherical part of the equation can be expressed as a series of Laplace's spherical harmonics, simplifying practical computation. Laplace presented a memoir on planetary inequalities in three sections, in 1784, 1785, and 1786. This dealt mainly with

16756-446: The more distant planets would be older than those nearer the Sun. As mentioned, the idea of the nebular hypothesis had been outlined by Immanuel Kant in 1755, who had also suggested "meteoric aggregations" and tidal friction as causes affecting the formation of the Solar System. Laplace was probably aware of this, but, like many writers of his time, he generally did not reference the work of others. Laplace's analytical discussion of

16898-463: The more subtle higher-order effects of interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a mathematical solution to the whole, even concluding that periodic divine intervention was necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar System. Dispensing with the hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific life. It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to

17040-433: The most senior rank of a research-focused career in the U.K and northern Europe, and regarded as equal in rank, to a teaching full professorship. Frequently, the job of research professor has permanent employment, like a tenured professor in the U.S., and the position is held by a particularly distinguished scholar. Thus, the title is seen as more prestigious than a teaching full professorship. A research professorship, has

17182-475: The natural sugar in apples are used up in the fermentation process and are converted into alcohol, and carbon dioxide. If the fermentation goes all the way, the cider will have no perceivable residual sugar and be dry. This means that the cider will not taste sweet, and might show more bitterness, or acidity. Ciders are made in many parts of Europe and in the United States and each country has different representations of cider with different flavour compounds. Keeving

17324-465: The particular question he was discussing. While Newton explained the tides by describing the tide-generating forces and Bernoulli gave a description of the static reaction of the waters on Earth to the tidal potential, the dynamic theory of tides , developed by Laplace in 1775, describes the ocean's real reaction to tidal forces . Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into account friction , resonance and natural periods of ocean basins. It predicted

17466-556: The period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the Scholar-officials ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of Imperial examination , and also were skilled calligraphers , and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: Generally speaking,

17608-565: The pre-pressed juice the concentrated solution is drawn off while thawing occurs. Although, according to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) cider producers can only label a product 'Ice Cider' if it is produced from apples naturally frozen outdoors. Two styles not mentioned in the USACM Cider Style Guide are Rosé and Sparkling Cider. Rosé cider can be produced from apple varieties that have reddish-pink pulp, like Pink Pearl and Amour Rouge. Rosé ciders can also be created through

17750-461: The press, says that Laplace himself was frequently unable to recover the details in the chain of reasoning, and, if satisfied that the conclusions were correct, he was content to insert the phrase, " Il est aisé à voir que... " ("It is easy to see that..."). The Mécanique céleste is not only the translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica into the language of differential calculus , but it completes parts of which Newton had been unable to fill in

17892-506: The record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the literati , who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as

18034-412: The same purpose as the yeast used in the champagne method of sparkling wine production: to generate carbonation and distinct aromas with a fermentation that occurs in the bottle. The yeast is selected based on critical properties, such as tolerance to high pressure, low temperature, and high ethanol concentration, as well as an ability to flocculate , which allows for riddling to remove the yeast when

18176-472: The scholarly public. It is the methods that systemically advance the teaching, research, and practice of a given scholarly or academic field of study through rigorous inquiry. Scholarship is creative, can be documented, can be replicated or elaborated, and can be and is peer-reviewed through various methods. Scholars have generally been upheld as creditable figures of high social standing, who are engaged in work important to society. In Imperial China , in

18318-464: The small estates of Maarquis. His great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont; but, having procured a letter of introduction to d'Alembert , he went to Paris to advance his fortune. However, Karl Pearson is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Ball's account and states: Indeed Caen

18460-484: The species tend to be either Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Saccharomyces bayanus. Commercial strains are available for purchase from numerous distributors, and their characteristics are typically outlined in manuals from the companies. Selection for fermentation may be based on a yeast's ability to ferment at particular sugar concentrations, temperatures, or pH. Some producers may also select for yeasts that produce killer factors , allowing them to out-compete other yeast in

18602-513: The task. In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir on Heat , in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion. In their experiments they measured the specific heat of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured the boiling points of ethanol and ether under pressure. Laplace further impressed the Marquis de Condorcet , and already by 1771 Laplace felt entitled to membership in

18744-413: The teaching of others. In a number of countries, the title "Research Professor" refers to a person who is primarily engaged in research, and who has few or no teaching obligations. The title is used in this sense in the United Kingdom, where it is known as Research Professor at some universities, and Professorial Research Fellow at other institutions and in northern Europe. Research Professor is quite often

18886-589: The term "potential function" was not actually used (to refer to a function V of the coordinates of space in Laplace's sense) until George Green 's 1828 An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism . Laplace applied the language of calculus to the potential function and showed that it always satisfies the differential equation : An analogous result for

19028-420: The tides interact with deep sea ridges and chains of seamounts give rise to deep eddies that transport nutrients from the deep to the surface. The equilibrium tide theory calculates the height of the tide wave of less than half a meter, while the dynamic theory explains why tides are up to 15 meters. Satellite observations confirm the accuracy of the dynamic theory, and the tides worldwide are now measured to within

19170-416: The time during which the cider remains in contact with yeast lees increased concentrations of most of the minor volatile compounds present, especially fatty acids, ethyl esters and alcohols. Major volatile compound concentrations did not exhibit a similar pattern, with iso -butanol, amyl alcohols, and acetone decreasing 1-propanol decreasing. Sparkling ciders can be produced using different methods, including

19312-428: The university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplace's brilliance as a mathematician was quickly recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies . This provided the first correspondence between Laplace and Lagrange. Lagrange

19454-486: Was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, but Pierre Laplace senior was also a cider merchant and syndic of the town of Beaumont. Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory , his father intending that he be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church . At sixteen, to further his father's intention, he was sent to the University of Caen to read theology. At

19596-484: Was not a large factor when considering the production process. Apples were historically confined to the cooler climates of Western Europe and Britain where civilisation was slow to develop record keeping. Cider was first made from crab apples , ancestors of the bittersweet and bittersharp apples used by today's English cider makers. English cider contained a drier, higher-alcohol-content version, using open fermentation vats and bittersweet crab apples. The French developed

19738-601: Was probably in Laplace's day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor. It was here he wrote his first paper published in the Mélanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766–1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to Paris in 1771. Thus before he was 20 he was in touch with Lagrange in Turin . He did not go to Paris

19880-414: Was professional research. In 1847, minister Emanuel Vogel Gerhart spoke of the role of the scholar in society: [A] scholar [is one] whose whole inward intellectual and moral being has been symmetrically unfolded, disciplined and strengthened under the influence of truth... No one faculty should be drawn out to the neglect of others. The whole inner man should be unfolded harmoniously. Gerhart argued that

20022-420: Was the senior by thirteen years, and had recently founded in his native city Turin a journal named Miscellanea Taurinensia , in which many of his early works were printed and it was in the fourth volume of this series that Laplace's paper appeared. About this time, recognising that he had no vocation for the priesthood, he resolved to become a professional mathematician. Some sources state that he then broke with

20164-466: Was ultimately published in 1774 while the second paper, published in 1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work on celestial mechanics and the stability of the Solar System . The two disciplines would always be interlinked in his mind. "Laplace took probability as an instrument for repairing defects in knowledge." Laplace's work on probability and statistics

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