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100-621: The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk was a WWII fighter aircraft that was developed from the P-36 Hawk , via the P-37. Many variants were built, some in large numbers, under names including the Hawk, Tomahawk, and Kittyhawk. In early 1937 , after realizing the Hawk 75 was inferior to more modern European designs, the USAAC ordered one P-36 to be modified with an Allison V-1710 inline engine. The prototype Hawk

200-741: A low yo-yo . Robert DeHaven describes how this tactic was used in the 49th Fighter group: USAAF and Chinese P-40 pilots performed well in this theater against many Japanese types such as the Ki-43, Nakajima Ki-44 "Tojo" and the Zero. The P-40 remained in use in the China Burma India Theater (CBI) until 1944 and was reportedly preferred over the P-51 Mustang by some US pilots flying in China. The American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers)

300-744: A two-speed supercharger for the P-40's Allison V-1710 engine's made it inferior to Luftwaffe fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 in high-altitude combat and it was rarely used in operations in Northwest Europe . However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a critical role with Allied air forces in three major theaters: North Africa , the Southwest Pacific , and China . It also had

400-458: A P-40 with two Merlin engines mounted on top of the wings over the landing gear. The apparent serial number , 41-13456, belongs to a P-40C, however, the canopy is from an early Hawk 87. Curtiss P-40 Warhawk The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal fighter-bomber that first flew in 1938. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled

500-432: A P-40E with a turbo-supercharged V-1710. Although a good idea on paper, there were many problems with fitting a turbo-supercharged V-1710 into the P-40. One of the main problems was the size of the turbocharger, which would not fit in the standard P-40 airframe. On top of that the intended engines were reserved for P-38 production. In May 1942 the project was cancelled without anything being built. Another solution to

600-638: A dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40. A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces. The Flying Tigers , known officially as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG), were a unit of the Chinese Air Force , recruited from amongst U.S. Navy, Marine Corps and Army aviators and ground crew. AVG leader Claire Chennault received crated Model Bs which his airmen assembled in Burma at

700-583: A few P-40s managed to get in the air and shoot down several Japanese aircraft, most notably by George Welch and Kenneth Taylor . In the Dutch East Indies campaign , the 17th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional), formed from USAAF pilots evacuated from the Philippines, claimed 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s The seaplane tender USS Langley was sunk by Japanese airplanes while delivering P-40s to Tjilatjap , Java . In

800-597: A good rate of serviceability. The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include Vichy French aircraft, during the 1941 Syria-Lebanon campaign , against Dewoitine D.520s , a type often considered to be the best French fighter of the war. The P-40 was deadly against Axis bombers in the theater, as well as against the Bf 110 twin-engine fighter. In June 1941, Caldwell, of 250 Squadron in Egypt , flying as flying Officer (F/O) Jack Hamlyn's wingman, recorded in his log book that he

900-467: A prisoner of war. A famous African-American unit, the 99th FS , better known as the "Tuskegee Airmen" or "Redtails", flew P-40s in stateside training and for their initial eight months in the MTO. On 9 June 1943, they became the first African-American fighter pilots to engage enemy aircraft, over Pantelleria , Italy. A single Focke-Wulf Fw 190 was reported damaged by Lieutenant Willie Ashley Jr. On 2 July

1000-553: A prominent German Experte , Erbo von Kageneck (69 kills), while flying a P-40. Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s. Billy Drake of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories. James "Stocky" Edwards (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with No. 260 Squadron RAF . Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and Nicky Barr were among at least

1100-723: A radio, six .50-caliber machine guns, and auxiliary bomb racks that could hold 35-lb fragmentation bombs. Chennault's armorer added bomb racks for 570-lb Russian bombs, which the Chinese had in abundance. These planes were used in the battle of the Salween River Gorge in late May 1942, which kept the Japanese from entering China from Burma and threatening Kunming. Spare parts, however, remained in short supply. "Scores of new planes...were now in India, and there they stayed—in case

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1200-634: A rapid entry into production and operational service. The Warhawk was used by most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in frontline service until the end of the war. It was the third most-produced American fighter of World War II, after the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt ; by November 1944, when production of the P-40 ceased, 13,738 had been built, all at Curtiss-Wright Corporation 's main production facilities in Buffalo, New York . P-40 Warhawk

1300-469: A significant role in the Middle East , Southeast Asia , Eastern Europe , Alaska and Italy . The P-40's performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter , bomber escort and fighter-bomber . Although it gained a postwar reputation as a mediocre design, suitable only for close air support , more recent research including scrutiny of

1400-631: A slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the Luftwaffe accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite Luftwaffe units, such as Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG27), in North Africa. The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to

1500-757: A tremendous amount of punishment, violent aerobatics as well as enemy action". Operational range was good by early war standards and was almost double that of the Supermarine Spitfire or Messerschmitt Bf 109 , although inferior to the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, Nakajima Ki-43 and Lockheed P-38 Lightning . Caldwell found the P-40C Tomahawk's armament of two .50-inch (13 mm) Browning AN/M2 "light-barrel" dorsal nose-mount synchronized machine guns and two .303-inch (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns in each wing to be inadequate. This

1600-541: A variety of climates. Its semi- modular design was easy to maintain in the field. It lacked innovations such as boosted ailerons or automatic leading edge slats , but its strong structure included a five- spar wing, which enabled P-40s to pull high-G turns and survive some midair collisions. Intentional ramming attacks against enemy aircraft were occasionally recorded as victories by the Desert Air Force and Soviet Air Forces . Caldwell said P-40s "would take

1700-519: Is listed with its cartridge type appended. The usual nomenclature of ammunition indicates the diameter of projectile and the length of the cartridge that holds it; for example, 20×102 mm is a 20 mm projectile in a 102 mm long case. Though this designation is often assumed to be unique, this is not always the case, e.g. there are three different 20×110 mm types which are not compatible. These may be distinguished in that some cartridge designations may include additional letters or names as

1800-484: The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II by USAAF units, including the 33rd , 57th , 58th , 79th , 324th and 325th Fighter Groups . While the P-40 suffered heavy losses in the MTO, many USAAF P-40 units achieved high kill-to-loss ratios against Axis aircraft; the 324th FG scored better than a 2:1 ratio in the MTO. In all, 23 U.S. pilots became aces in the MTO on the P-40, most of them during

1900-655: The Mediterranean coast until mid-1944, when they were replaced by Republic P-47D Thunderbolts. In all, 18 Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons, four Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), three South African Air Force (SAAF) and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s. The first units to convert were Hawker Hurricane squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or self-sealing fuel tanks , which were installed in subsequent shipments. Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to

2000-603: The Solomon Islands and New Guinea Campaigns and the air defence of Australia , improved tactics and training allowed the USAAF to better use the strengths of the P-40. Due to aircraft fatigue, scarcity of spare parts and replacement problems, the US Fifth Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force created a joint P-40 management and replacement pool on 30 July 1942 and many P-40s went back and forth between

2100-562: The United States Army Air Corps also put in a domestic order for 524 Model 75Ps, which was the largest single order for a US fighter aircraft at the time. In August 1943, the XP-40 was fitted with rubber-tracked main landing gear. Testing began in 1944, revealing problems with snow and ice being packed between the wheels and track belt, stretching the latter. The production P-40 (Model 81A) were nearly identical to

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2200-415: The "Checkertail Clan") flew P-40s in the MTO and was credited with at least 133 air-to-air kills from April–October 1943, of which 95 were Bf 109s and 26 were Macchi C.202s, for the loss of 17 P-40s in combat. The 325th FG historian Carol Cathcart wrote: on 30 July, 20 P-40s of the 317th [Fighter Squadron] ... took off on a fighter sweep ... over Sardinia . As they turned to fly south over the west part of

2300-456: The 71st Reconnaissance Group employed them as armed forward air controllers during ground operations in the Philippines, until it received delivery of P-51s. They claimed 655 aerial victories. Contrary to conventional wisdom, with sufficient altitude, the P-40 could turn with the A6M and other Japanese fighters, using a combination of a nose-down vertical turn with a bank turn, a technique known as

2400-536: The AVG improvised by installing a fragile radio transceiver, the RCA-7-H, which had been built for a Piper Cub. Because the plane had a single-stage low-altitude supercharger, its effective ceiling was about 25,000 feet (7,600 m). The most critical problem was the lack of spare parts; the only source was from damaged aircraft. The planes were viewed as cast-offs that no one else wanted, dangerous and difficult to fly. But

2500-519: The American-made 1,390 hp (1,040 kW) Packard V-1650-1 Merlin . The resulting P-40F (Model 87B) was the first variant to carry the "Warhawk" name. Along with the added power of the Merlin engine came a decrease in directional stability. Curtiss attempted to fix this by fitting a dorsal fillet to the tail of a single P-40F; however, this was not adopted into production. Starting with

2600-607: The Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it." The 3rd, 5th, 23rd, 51st and 80th FGs, along with the 10th TRS, operated the P-40 in the CBI. CBI P-40 pilots used the aircraft very effectively as a fighter-bomber. The 80th Fighter Group in particular used its so-called B-40 (P-40s carrying 1,000-pound high-explosive bombs) to destroy bridges and kill bridge repair crews, sometimes demolishing their target with one bomb. At least 40 U.S. pilots reached ace status while flying

2700-515: The Axis aircraft landed on the beaches around Cap Bon to avoid being shot down; six Allied fighters were lost, five of them P-40s. On 22 April, in Operation Flax , a similar force of P-40s attacked a formation of 14 Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant ("Giant") six-engine transports, covered by seven Bf 109s from II./JG 27. All the transports were shot down, for a loss of three P-40s. The 57th FG

2800-454: The Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F. Most air combat in North Africa took place well below 16,000 ft (4,900 m), negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling. The P-40

2900-558: The British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941. No. 112 Squadron Royal Air Force , was among the first to operate Tomahawks in North Africa and the unit was the first Allied military aviation unit to feature the "shark mouth" logo, copying similar markings on some Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine fighters. The lack of

3000-425: The Chinese had in large quantity. Units arriving in the CBI after the AVG in the 10th and 14th Air Forces continued to perform well with the P-40, claiming 973 kills in the theater, or 64.8 percent of all enemy aircraft shot down. Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that "...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China. They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and

3100-591: The DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until " tropicalised " Supermarine Spitfires were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50 in (12.7 mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of

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3200-613: The Gladiator) or on some other retractable gear fighters such as the Hurricane. As a result, novice pilots had a hard time adjusting to the new fighter and there were many accidents on landing and takeoff in the early years of the war, with both Tomahawk and Kittyhawk types. Therefore, two P-40Es were fitted with a second seat to be used as trainer aircraft under the designation P-40ES . With these aircraft and improved training techniques these problems subsided. The main problem with

3300-492: The Japanese Army air arm's Nakajima Ki-27s and Ki-43s, nor the much more famous Zero naval fighter in slow, turning dogfights, at higher speeds the P-40s were more than a match. Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages. The P-40 had a higher dive speed than any Japanese fighter aircraft of the early war years, for example, and could exploit so-called "boom-and-zoom" tactics. The AVG

3400-416: The Japanese decided to invade... the AVG was lucky to get a few tires and spark plugs with which to carry on its daily war." China received 27 P-40E models in early 1943. These were assigned to squadrons of the 4th Air Group. A total of 15 USAAF pursuit/fighter groups (FG), along with other pursuit/fighter squadrons and a few tactical reconnaissance (TR) units, operated the P-40 during 1941–45. As

3500-549: The Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favoring the Japanese. Allison's V-1710 engines produced 1,040 hp (780 kW) at sea level and 14,000 ft (4,300 m). This was not powerful compared with contemporary fighters, and the early P-40 variants' top speeds were only average. The single-stage, single-speed supercharger meant that the P-40 was a poor high-altitude fighter. Later versions, with 1,200 hp (890 kW) Allisons or more powerful 1,400 hp Packard Merlin engines were more capable. Climb performance

3600-525: The Model 75I, the resulting XP-40 (Model 75P) did not have a turbo-supercharger, thus the cockpit was not moved back, and the radiator was moved to the ventral position. Later the landing gear was redesigned and the radiator was moved under the nose. Armament was two .50 M2 Brownings mounted in the nose. The new engine conferred a 50 mph speed advantage over the already popular Hawk, and export orders from England and France came in quickly. In April 1939,

3700-666: The P-40 and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly. Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica . In August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German ace Werner Schröer . Although Caldwell was wounded three times and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 7.92 mm (0.312 in) bullets and five 20 mm cannon shells, Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base. Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed

3800-530: The P-40 in the CBI. On 14 August 1942, the first confirmed victory by a USAAF unit over a German aircraft in World War II was initiated by a P-40C pilot. 2nd Lt Joseph D. Shaffer, of the 33rd Fighter Squadron, intercepted a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 C-3 maritime patrol aircraft that overflew his base at Reykjavík , Iceland . Shaffer damaged the Fw 200, which was finished off by a P-38F. Warhawks were used extensively in

3900-579: The P-40 to accommodate the V-1710-39 of the XP-46. The resulting P-40D (Model 87A) had a shorter nose with a larger radiator, four .50 Brownings in place of the .30 units, a revised windscreen, and provisions for two 20 mm cannons (one in each wing, never used). The nose guns were deleted as there wasn't room for them in the final design. Upon testing both the P-40D and XP-46 prototypes, the USAAF found that

4000-454: The P-40 was its effective altitude ceiling of about 12,000 feet. Above that altitude the single-stage Allison V-1710 engine started to perform poorly. As a result, unless combat was taking place at low altitude, P-40 pilots often faced attack from above in the opening stages of an interception, a chronic problem which cost many lives. In response, Curtiss proposed the P-40J , which was basically

4100-399: The P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or Supermarine Spitfire . In contrast to the "three-point landing" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a "wheels landing": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first. Testing showed the aircraft did not have

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4200-562: The P-40. These included at least 20 double aces, mostly over North Africa, China, Burma and India, the South West Pacific and Eastern Europe. The P-40 offered the additional advantages of low cost and durability, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolescent as a fighter. On 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo. The XP-40

4300-509: The P-40F, at least 53 P-40Ls were re-engined with V-1710-81s. Due to the shortage of Merlins, development of the Allison powered Warhawk was again continued. The P-40K airframe was given a 1,360 hp V-1710-81 with a cooling grill forward of the exhaust stubs. The P-40M was supposed to be a purely export variant of the K, although many ended up in USAAF units. In RAF service the aircraft

4400-480: The P-40F-5, the tail was lengthened by about 20 in. Although the P-40F was superior to the Allison powered P-40s, there was a shortage of Merlin engines due to the vast number of aircraft that used them. Parts for these engines were becoming scarce, and maintenance became an issue. As a result, at least 70 P-40Fs were re-engined with V-1710-81s of 1,360 hp. These aircraft became known as P-40R-1 s. The P-40K

4500-551: The P-40F-5. This feature was standard on all subsequent Warhawks. A continued development of the Merlin powered Warhawk, the P-40L was a lightened version of the P-40F. Many weight saving changes were made to the aircraft, including removal of armor plating and reduction of rounds per gun. On the P-40L-5, weight was further reduced by removing two of the guns and reducing the internal fuel capacity from 157 gal. to 120 gal. As with

4600-458: The P-46 was to have four .30 MGs in each wing and two .50 MGs in the nose for a total of ten guns. This would have been the heaviest armament for a US fighter at the time. Both the USAAF and RAF placed orders for this aircraft, with the latter naming it "Kittyhawk". Due to delays in the P-46 program, the USAAF asked Curtiss to prioritize development of an improved P-40. Curtiss did so, and reworked

4700-610: The Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance with RAF Army Cooperation Command and only No. 403 Squadron RCAF was used in the fighter role for a mere 29 sorties, before being replaced by Spitfires. Air Ministry deemed the P-40 unsuitable for the theater. UK P-40 squadrons from mid-1942 re-equipped with aircraft such as Mustangs The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many improvements and were

4800-474: The Tomahawk was in action over Syria with No. 3 Squadron RAAF , which claimed 19 aerial victories over Vichy French aircraft during June and July 1941, for the loss of one P-40 (and one lost to ground fire). Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the Lufbery circle . The superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing

4900-523: The Warhawk to the standards of more modern fighters such as the North American P-51 Mustang . To do so, Curtiss installed a 1,425 hp water injected V-1710-121 into the Hawk 87 airframe. The resulting aircraft became the fastest P-40 model at 422 mph. Even with these modifications, the P-40Q (Model 87X) was still inferior to modern fighters and the project was cancelled. A single photo exists of

5000-578: The XP-40, but was built with a 1,040 hp (780 kW) V-1710-33s and one .30 M1919 Browning in each wing. The company designation was changed to Model 81 due to the extensive changes from the standard Model 75. France, who was a large operator of the P-36, was interested in this fighter and ordered 140 aircraft as Hawk 81A-1s. However, following the 1940 French Armistice the Royal Air Force acquired these aircraft as Tomahawk Mk.Is. This variant

5100-455: The XP-46 offered no significant improvement over the P-40C, and was inferior to the P-40D. Both the USAAF and RAF cancelled their orders for the P-46 and the name "Kittyhawk" was given to the P-40D. Starting with the 24th Model 87, an additional .50 MG was added to each wing and the carburetor intake was moved forward 6 in. Although these changes were relatively minor, this new variant was given

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5200-551: The advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics. Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units from 1941 to 1942, including "fluid pairs" (similar to the German rotte ); the Thach Weave (one or two "weavers") at the back of a squadron in formation and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations. Werner Schröer , who was credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to

5300-525: The air forces. The 49th Fighter Group was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war. Robert M. DeHaven scored 10 kills (of 14 overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG. He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38: The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s from 1943 to 1944. In 1945,

5400-756: The aircraft were diverted to British and Commonwealth service (as the Tomahawk I), in some cases complete with metric flight instruments. In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the Vichy government to side with the Allies , U.S. forces transferred P-40Fs from 33rd FG to GC II/5 , a squadron that was historically associated with the Lafayette Escadrille . GC II/5 used its P-40Fs and Ls in combat in Tunisia and later for patrol duty off

5500-585: The brunt of Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica fighter attacks during the North African campaign . The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force. I would evade being shot at accurately by pulling so much g-force ...that you could feel the blood leaving the head and coming down over your eyes... And you would fly like that for as long as you could, knowing that if anyone

5600-513: The designation P-40E . When the P-40D and E went into service, several problems were discovered. When maneuvering in high G turns the guns would often jam due to the way the ammunition was stored. Another problem was that engine and trim management were both somewhat complex and taxing with earlier P-40's required strong rudder pressure to offset engine torque and frequent trim adjustments were needed during rapid speed changes. Both these problems were remedied sometime late in production by enlarging

5700-468: The end of 1941, adding self-sealing fuel tanks and a second pair of wing guns, such that the aircraft became a hybrid of B and C models. These were not well-liked by their pilots: they lacked drop tanks for extra range, and there were no bomb racks on the wings. Chennault considered the liquid-cooled engine vulnerable in combat because a single bullet through the coolant system would cause the engine to overheat in minutes. The Tomahawks also had no radios, so

5800-539: The first half of 1943. P-40 pilots from the 57th FG were the first USAAF fliers to see action in the MTO, while attached to Desert Air Force Kittyhawk squadrons, from July 1942. The 57th was also the main unit involved in the " Palm Sunday Massacre ", on 18 April 1943. Decoded Ultra signals revealed a plan for a large formation of Junkers Ju 52 transports to cross the Mediterranean, escorted by German and Italian fighters. Between 1630 and 1830 hours, all wings of

5900-542: The group were engaged in an intensive effort against the enemy air transports. Of the four Kittyhawk wings, three had left the patrol area before a convoy of a 100+ enemy transports were sighted by 57th FG, which tallied 74 aircraft destroyed. The group was last in the area, and intercepted the Ju 52s escorted by large numbers of Bf 109s, Bf 110s and Macchi C.202s . The group claimed 58 Ju 52s, 14 Bf 109s and two Bf 110s destroyed, with several probables and damaged. Between 20 and 40 of

6000-565: The heaviest P-40 variants, but the extra horsepower on the P-40K gave it good performance particularly at low altitude (noticeably better than the P-40E). As with the P-40F, the increase in power led to decreased directional stability, but Curtiss predicted this and incorporated an enlarged vertical stabilizer to early P-40Ks. On the K-10 sub-variant onward, this was replaced with the lengthened tail of

6100-500: The high altitude performance problem was to fit the P-40 with a supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. This idea came from the British, as they noticed that their Allison powered Kittyhawks and Mustangs had poor performance at high altitudes, while their own Merlin powered Hurricanes and Spitfires did not have the same problems. Curtiss fitted the second P-40D with a 1,300 hp (969 kW) Merlin 28. Production aircraft had

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6200-413: The island, they were attacked near Sassari ... The attacking force consisted of 25 to 30 Bf 109s and Macchi C.202s... In the brief, intense battle that occurred ... [the 317th claimed] 21 enemy aircraft. Cathcart wrote that Lt. Robert Sederberg assisted a comrade being attacked by five Bf 109s, destroyed at least one German aircraft, and may have shot down as many as five. Sederberg was shot down and became

6300-400: The landing gear doors and the exhaust manifold combined to give performance that was satisfactory to the USAAC. Without beneficial tail winds, Kelsey flew the XP-40 from Wright Field back to Curtiss's plant in Buffalo at an average speed of 354 mph (570 km/h). Further tests in December 1939 proved the fighter could reach 366 mph (589 km/h). An unusual production feature

6400-413: The later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers. From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the U.S. 57th Fighter Group (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union. Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore

6500-700: The latter formation as "bunches of grapes", because he found them so easy to pick off. The leading German expert in North Africa, Hans-Joachim Marseille , claimed as many as 101 P-40s during his career. From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber". As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s. Caldwell believed that Operational Training Units did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in

6600-404: The new, sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest fighter order it had ever made for 524 P-40s. An early order came from the French Armée de l'Air , which was already operating P-36s. The Armée de l'Air ordered 100 (later the order was increased to 230) as the Hawk 81A-1 but the French were defeated before the aircraft had left the factory and

6700-446: The performance needed for use in Northwest Europe at high-altitude, due to the service ceiling limitation. Spitfires used in the theater operated at heights around 30,000 ft (9,100 m), while the P-40's Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at 15,000 ft (4,600 m) or lower. When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from February 1941, this limitation relegated

6800-421: The pilots did appreciate some of the planes' features. There were two heavy sheets of steel behind the pilot's head and back that offered solid protection, and overall the planes were ruggedly constructed. Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was sturdy, well armed, faster in a dive and possessed an excellent rate of roll. While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of

6900-418: The radiator forward in steps. Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a NACA wind tunnel to identify solutions for better aerodynamic qualities. From 28 March to 11 April 1939, the prototype was studied by NACA. Based on the data obtained, Curtiss moved the glycol coolant radiator forward to the chin; its new air scoop also accommodated the oil cooler air intake. Other improvements to

7000-406: The records of Allied squadrons indicates that this was not the case; the P-40 performed surprisingly well as an air superiority fighter, at times suffering severe losses, but also inflicting a very heavy toll on enemy aircraft. Based on war-time victory claims, over 200 Allied fighter pilots – from the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, the US and the Soviet Union – became aces flying

7100-661: The roll rate. The Kittyhawk was the main fighter used by the RAAF in World War II, in greater numbers than the Spitfire. Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, No. 3 and No. 450 Squadrons , were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s. Other RAAF pilots served with RAF or SAAF P-40 squadrons in the theater. 20 mm caliber Weapons using this caliber range from anti-materiel rifles and anti-tank rifles to aircraft autocannons and anti-aircraft guns . Twenty millimeter caliber weapons are generally not used to target individual soldiers, but rather objects such as vehicles, buildings, or aircraft. Each weapon

7200-481: The squadron claimed its first verified kill; a Fw 190 destroyed by Captain Charles Hall. The 99th continued to score with P-40s until February 1944, when they were assigned P-39s and P-51 Mustangs. The much-lightened P-40L was most heavily used in the MTO, primarily by U.S. pilots. Many US pilots stripped down their P-40s even further to improve performance, often removing two or more of the wing guns to improve

7300-410: The vertical stabilizer and changing how the ammunition was stored. P-40's were more a powerful, faster-flying aircraft than the primary and advanced trainers most pre-war and early-war Allied pilots were familiar with, and transition training was often inadequate or neglected altogether in the early years of the war. The landing gear was also more narrow and not as strong as in fixed gear aircraft (like

7400-512: Was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York. The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two main components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery. The P-40 was conceived as a pursuit aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes but suffered from a lack of power at higher altitudes. At medium and high speeds it

7500-492: Was adequate, although hampered by a complex windscreen frame, and completely blocked to the rear in early models by a raised turtledeck. Poor ground visibility and relatively narrow landing gear track caused many losses on the ground. Curtiss tested a follow-on design, the Curtiss XP-46 , but it offered little improvement over newer P-40 models and was cancelled. In April 1939, the U.S. Army Air Corps, having witnessed

7600-541: Was also re-introduced. With these changes, the P-40N-1 (Model 87V) was the fastest production Warhawk, reaching a speed of 378 mph below 12,000 feet. Starting with the P-40N-5 (Model 87W), the canopy was redesigned to give the pilot a better field of vision. This variant also reverted to the six gun wing and one rack was added to each wing, these could carry either bombs or drop tanks. A more powerful V-1710-99 engine

7700-883: Was also the case with the Bell P-39 Airacobra , many USAAF officers considered the P-40 exceptional but it was gradually replaced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang. The bulk of the fighter operations by the USAAF in 1942–43 were borne by the P-40 and the P-39. In the Pacific, these two fighters, along with the U.S. Navy Grumman F4F Wildcat , contributed more than any other U.S. types to breaking Japanese air power during this critical period. The P-40

7800-441: Was based on the P-40, but was an almost entirely different aircraft. While retaining the rear fuselage of the P-40, the XP-46 had a new wing with wider track landing gear. The nose was redesigned too, as it housed a new 1,150 hp (860 kW) V-1710-39 engine. This "F-series" engine differed from the "C-series" engine of the Model 81 in having a more compact external spur gear-type reduction gear box . The production version of

7900-509: Was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills. On 23 February 1943, during Operation Torch , the pilots of the 58th FG flew 75 P-40Ls off the aircraft carrier USS  Ranger to the newly captured Vichy French airfield, Cazas, near Casablanca , in French Morocco . The aircraft supplied the 33rd FG and the pilots were reassigned. The 325th FG (known as

8000-483: Was fair to poor, depending on the subtype. Dive acceleration was good and dive speed was excellent. The highest-scoring P-40 ace , Clive Caldwell ( RAAF ), who claimed 22 of his 28½ kills in the type, said that the P-40 had "almost no vices", although "it was a little difficult to control in terminal velocity". The P-40 had one of the fastest maximum dive speeds of any fighter of the early war period, and good high-speed handling. The P-40 tolerated harsh conditions and

8100-450: Was fitted with a turbo-supercharged 1,150 hp (860 kW) Allison V-1710-11 engine as the XP-37 (company designation Model 75I). The cockpit was moved back towards the tail to make room for the massive supercharger, and the engine was cooled by two radiators on either side of the nose. Armament was one .30 M1919 Browning MG and one .50 M2 Browning MG mounted in the nose. The XP-37

8200-630: Was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia and the Macchi C.200 . Its performance against the Macchi C.202 Folgore elicited varying opinions. Some observers consider the Macchi C.202 superior. Caldwell, who scored victories against them in his P-40, felt that the Folgore was superior to the P-40 and the Bf 109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns

8300-450: Was given self-sealing fuel tanks . The obsolete SCR-283 radio of the earlier P-40s was replaced with an SCR-274N and provisions were made for a 52 gal drop tank . The latter change increased the combat radius dramatically, and was a standard feature in all subsequent P-40s. Soon after P-40 production started, Curtiss began development of its intended successor, the XP-46 . This aircraft

8400-483: Was highly successful, and its feats were widely publicized by an active cadre of international journalists to boost sagging public morale at home. According to its official records, in just 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 months, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 enemy aircraft for the loss of just four of its own in air-to-air combat. In the spring of 1942, the AVG received a small number of Model E's. Each came equipped with

8500-567: Was improved with the P-40D (Kittyhawk I) which abandoned the synchronized gun mounts and instead had two .50-inch (13 mm) guns in each wing, although Caldwell still preferred the earlier Tomahawk in other respects. The D had armor around the engine and the cockpit, which enabled it to withstand considerable damage. This allowed Allied pilots in Asia and the Pacific to attack Japanese fighters head on, rather than try to out-turn and out-climb their opponents. Late-model P-40s were well armored. Visibility

8600-454: Was inadequate. Other observers considered the two equally matched or favored the Folgore in aerobatic performance, such as turning radius. The aviation historian Walter J. Boyne wrote that over Africa, the P-40 and the Folgore were "equivalent". Against its lack of high-altitude performance, the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough front line airstrips with

8700-636: Was integrated into the USAAF as the 23rd Fighter Group in June 1942. The unit continued to fly newer model P-40s until 1944, achieving a high kill-to-loss ratio. In the Battle of the Salween River Gorge of May 1942 the AVG used the P-40E model equipped with wing racks that could carry six 35-pound fragmentation bombs and Chennault's armorer developed belly racks to carry Russian 570-pound bombs, which

8800-666: Was intended to be the last P-40 production variant before replacement by the P-60 , and only 600 were ordered by the USAAF to supply to China. However, with the cancellation of the P-60 the attack on Pearl Harbor led to this order being increased to 1,300 aircraft. A continuation of the Allison-powered Warhawk, the K was similar to the P-40E, but was powered by a 1,325 hp V-1710-73. It also featured improved machine gun ammunition storage reducing gun stoppages. These were

8900-400: Was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, and it had a smooth, predictable power curve. The V-12 engine offered as much power as a radial engine but had a smaller frontal area and allowed a more streamlined cowl than an aircraft with a radial engine, promising a theoretical 5% increase in top speed. Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40's speed by moving

9000-585: Was introduced on the N-20, and a further improved V-1710-115 was introduced on the N-40. Curtiss attempted to further improve visibility and fitted one P-40N with a bubble canopy; this feature never made it to production. The P-40P was a planned variant of the P-40N with a Merlin engine. The project was cancelled due to a shortage of Merlins and the aircraft were delivered as P-40Ns. In 1944, Curtiss attempted to bring

9100-523: Was involved in the first air combat victory for the P-40. This was a CANT Z.1007 bomber on 6 June. The claim was not officially recognized, as the crash of the CANT was not witnessed. The first official victory occurred on 8 June, when Hamlyn and Flight Sergeant (Flt Sgt) Tom Paxton destroyed a CANT Z.1007 from 211 Squadriglia of the Regia Aeronautica , over Alexandria . Several days later,

9200-468: Was named Kittyhawk Mk.III , the same as the P-40K, which can cause some confusion. The P-40N was the most produced variant of the Warhawk, with 5220 aircraft built. In an attempt to increase performance, Curtiss lightened the P-40M by introducing a lightweight structure, lighter, smaller-diameter undercarriage wheels, removing two of the guns, and installing aluminum radiators and oil coolers. Head armor

9300-587: Was not considered combat-ready, as they lacked heavy armament and armor, but as there was a shortage of decent fighter aircraft after the Battle of Britain , the RAF pressed these into service for use in North Africa anyway. Of the remaining 324 aircraft of the initial order, 131 were built as P-40B s. Though strongly built, the first P-40 variant was poorly protected and lacked armor and self sealing tanks. This

9400-550: Was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war, and it could out turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front. In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters Mitsubishi A6M Zero and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (known to Allies as "Oscar"). The American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with

9500-452: Was partly rectified with the P-40B, which had additional armor behind the cockpit, but fuel system and control line vulnerability remained a problem to some extent with all Tomahawk types. The P-40B also had an additional .30 MG in each wing. The last 193 aircraft of the original P-40 order were completed as P-40C s. In an attempt to further rectify the problem of poor protection, the P-40C

9600-467: Was plagued with supercharger and visibility problems. A further 13 Model 75Is were ordered in 1938 under the designation YP-37 . These differed from the XP-37 in having a V-1710-21 with a more reliable supercharger and an extended nose. The project was cancelled after continued supercharger and visibility problems. In 1937, the 10th P-36A was fitted with a 1,150 hp (860 kW) V-1710-19. Unlike

9700-736: Was the 10th production Curtiss P-36 Hawk, with its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine replaced at the direction of Chief Engineer Don R. Berlin by a liquid-cooled, supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine. The first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wing's trailing edge. USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, approximately 315 miles per hour (507 km/h). Hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) faster. Kelsey

9800-551: Was the main USAAF fighter aircraft in the South West Pacific and Pacific Ocean theaters during 1941–42. At Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines , USAAF P-40 squadrons suffered crippling losses on the ground and in the air to Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero and Ki-43 Hayabusa respectively. During the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of the USAAF fighters were P-40Bs, the majority of which were destroyed. However,

9900-485: Was the name the United States Army Air Corps gave the plane, and after June 1941, the USAAF adopted the name for all models, making it the official name in the U.S. for all P-40s. The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name Tomahawk for models equivalent to the original P-40, P-40B, and P-40C, and the name Kittyhawk for models equivalent to the P-40D and all later variants. P-40s first saw combat with

10000-498: Was trying to get on your tail they were going through the same bleary vision that you had and you might get away... I had deliberately decided that any deficiency the Kittyhawk had was offset by aggression. And I'd done a little bit of boxing – I beat much better opponents simply by going for [them]. And I decided to use that in the air. And it paid off. The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to

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