167-635: The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ( PCUSA ) was a Presbyterian denomination existing from 1789 to 1958. In that year, the PCUSA merged with the United Presbyterian Church of North America . The new church was named the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . It was a predecessor to the contemporary Presbyterian Church (USA) . The denomination originated in colonial times when members of
334-655: A synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ; some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually
501-417: A general assembly . Responsibility for conduct of church services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder , or a minister of the word and sacrament. Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops ( episcopal polity ), but also differs from the congregationalist polity in which each congregation is independent. In contrast to
668-551: A call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member. Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for
835-680: A chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland . In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of
1002-624: A full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite ), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments : Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by
1169-511: A governing body. Initially, member congregations were located in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. Further growth led to the creation of the Synod of Philadelphia (known as the "General Synod") in 1717. The synod's membership consisted of all ministers and one lay elder from every congregation. The synod still had no official confessional statement. The Church of Scotland and
1336-618: A major split, the Salter's Hall controversy , occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine. A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in
1503-410: A presbytery exists perpetually. The officers of a presbytery are a moderator and a stated or principal clerk . The moderator acts as chair of presbytery meetings. As with the moderators of synods and assemblies, the moderatorship is a primus inter pares position appointed by the presbytery itself. The moderator is addressed as "moderator" during meetings, but their position has no bearing outside of
1670-551: A result, most of the local churches established by the organization were Presbyterian. Another major stimulus for growth was the Second Great Awakening (c. 1790 – 1840), which initially grew out of a 1787 student revival at Hampden–Sydney College , a Presbyterian institution in Virginia. From there, revivals spread to Presbyterian churches in Virginia and then to North Carolina and Kentucky. The Revival of 1800
1837-474: A revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one. Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to
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#17327727617182004-453: A striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect Harold E. Wagoner . Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Catholic church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by
2171-640: A strong Presbyterian presence in the Middle Colonies , particularly Philadelphia . Before 1706, however, Presbyterian congregations were not yet organized into presbyteries or synods . In 1706, seven ministers led by Francis Makemie established the first presbytery in North America, the Presbytery of Philadelphia . The presbytery was primarily created to promote fellowship and discipline among its members and only gradually developed into
2338-561: A table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at
2505-787: A work of God. In the early 1770s, American Presbyterians were initially reluctant to support American Independence, but in time many Presbyterians came to support the Revolutionary War . After the Battles of Lexington and Concord , the Synod of New York and Philadelphia published a letter in May 1775 urging Presbyterians to support the Second Continental Congress while remaining loyal to George III . In one sermon, John Witherspoon , president of Princeton, preached "that
2672-776: Is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London, as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form
2839-415: Is also distinct from congregationalism , in that individual congregations are not independent, but are answerable to the wider church, through its governing bodies (presbyteries, synods and assemblies). Moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Congregational churches are sometimes called "Presbyterian" if they are governed by a council of elders; but
3006-662: Is an Italian Protestant denomination. The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in
3173-463: Is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism . The manner of subscription , or
3340-473: Is for the service of the congregation, to pray for them and to encourage them in the faith. The elders together exercise oversight (episcopacy) over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament and earliest churches. Presbyterianism
3507-618: Is more of a faint image, with a more modern design. John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of
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#17327727617183674-401: Is not as clear under the Presbyterian system as in others). The terms 'lay' and 'clergy' are not properly used in presbyterian polity. Ministers may be considered equal in status with the other elders, but they have a distinct ordination and distinct function. They are the primary preachers and teachers, celebrants of sacraments. There are sometimes further distinctions between the minister and
3841-577: Is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism , one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism , or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow
4008-493: Is often appointed for an indefinite term. Presbytery Clerks are the ecclesiastical administrators and generally regarded as substantially influential due to their greater experience of the governance of the church and their ordering of the business of the presbytery. They are thus very much more than secretaries and often in fact are the lynch pin of the organisation. Presbyteries meet at a regularity between monthly and quarterly, some half-yearly. In denominations too large for all
4175-481: Is to speak about issues or topics that commissioners would usually not worry about or care to speak about during a General Assembly meeting. Advisory Delegates may not present motions or vote in meetings of the General Assembly. The powers of the general assembly are usually wide-ranging. However, they may be limited by some form of external review. For example, the rules of the Church of Scotland include
4342-614: Is usually considered a demarcation issue, distinguishing "liberal" from "conservative" Presbyterian denominations. In North America, the Reformed Church in America , Christian Reformed Church in North America (both of Dutch Reformed heritage), Cumberland Presbyterian Church , ECO: A Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians , Evangelical Presbyterian Church , Presbyterian Church in Canada , and Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) are denominations with presbyterian polity which allow for
4509-746: The American upper class , Harvard University ; and the Episcopal and the Presbyterian Church. Old money in the United States was typically associated with White Anglo-Saxon Protestant ("WASP") status, particularly with the Episcopal and Presbyterian Church. Briggs' heresy trial was a setback to the movement for confessional revision, which wanted to soften the Westminster Confession's Calvinistic doctrines of predestination and election . Nevertheless, overtures continued to come before
4676-679: The Apostles' Creed ), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession , the Heidelberg Catechism , the Second Helvetic Confession ), and 20th century documents ( The Theological Declaration of Barmen , Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith ). The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of
4843-717: The Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer . What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant . The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War . Following the restoration of
5010-695: The Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales. Presbyterianism ( Irish : Preispitéireachas , Ulster Scots : Prisbytairinism ) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and
5177-677: The Associate Reformed Church , to form the United Foreign Missionary Society. The United Society was particularly focused on work among Native Americans and inhabitants of Central and South America. These denominations also established a United Domestic Missionary Society to station missionaries within the United States. In 1826, the Congregationalists joined these united efforts. The Congregational mission societies were merged with
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5344-621: The Barrier Act , which requires that certain major changes to the polity of the church be referred to the presbyteries, before being enacted by the general assembly. There may be issues arising between annual General Assemblies which require urgent attention. In these cases some presbyterian churches have a 'commission of assembly' who will deal with the issue and refer it to the next General Assembly for homologation. The word Presbyterianism , when capitalized, often refers specifically to churches founded on principles of presbyterian polity in
5511-574: The British Isles and their derivatives in other countries. In France , presbyterianism was represented by the Église réformée de France . There are also Lutherans and Evangelicals. The logo is a Huguenot Cross ( Croix huguenote ) with the burning bush. The origins of the Waldensian Evangelical Church lie in the medieval Waldensian movement for religious reform. The Waldensians adopted Calvinist theology during
5678-563: The Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland . King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud ,
5845-696: The Church of Scotland and Presbyterians from Ireland first immigrated to America. After the American Revolution , the PCUSA was organized in Philadelphia to provide national leadership for Presbyterians in the new nation. In 1861, Presbyterians in the Southern United States split from the denomination because of disputes over slavery, politics, and theology precipitated by the American Civil War . They established
6012-751: The Constitution and Federal Government of the United States . In response, representatives of Old School presbyteries in the South met in December at Augusta, Georgia, to form the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America . The Presbyterian Church in the CSA absorbed the smaller United Synod in 1864. After the Confederacy's defeat in 1865, it was renamed the Presbyterian Church in
6179-676: The Culdees practiced Christian monasticism , a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another." The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure . The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to
6346-535: The Hungarian Reformed Church there remain bishops who have a superintending role. Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible : Presbyterianism uses a conciliar method of church government (that is, leadership by the group or council). Thus, the ministers and "elders" govern together as a group, and at all times the office
6513-641: The Kingdom of Great Britain . In fact, most Presbyterians in England have a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America , mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. Scotland's Presbyterian denominations hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches that use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of
6680-603: The Kirk session , church session, or (in Continental Reformed usage) consistory . In some Continental Reformed churches, deacons are members of the consistory; others, such as the Christian Reformed Church in North America , distinguish between the consistory, comprising the pastor and elders, and the council, which comprises the pastor(s), the elders, and the deacons. In most denominations
6847-591: The L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s. In Wales , Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales , which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than
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7014-616: The Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting
7181-427: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America , the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO). Presbyterian elder Presbyterian (or presbyteral ) polity is a method of church governance (" ecclesiastical polity ") typified by
7348-486: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church in 1936. The origins of the Presbyterian Church is the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. The writings of French theologian and lawyer John Calvin (1509–64) solidified much of the Reformed thinking that came before him in the form of the sermons and writings of Huldrych Zwingli . John Knox , a former Catholic priest from Scotland who studied with Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland , took Calvin's teachings back to Scotland and led
7515-401: The Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries . In time,
7682-449: The Pentateuch was authored by Moses or that the book of Isaiah had a single author. In addition, he also denied that Biblical prophecy was a precise prediction of the future. In 1891, Briggs preached a sermon in which he claimed the Bible contained errors, a position many in the church considered contrary to the Westminster Confession's doctrines of verbal inspiration and Biblical inerrancy . In response, 63 presbyteries petitioned
7849-455: The Presbyterian Church in the United States , often called the "Southern Presbyterian Church". The PCUSA, in turn, was described as the Northern Presbyterian Church . Despite the PCUSA's designation as a "Northern church", it was once again a national denomination in its later years. Over time, traditional Calvinism played less of a role in shaping the church's doctrines and practices—it was influenced by Arminianism and revivalism early in
8016-428: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church . There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk , which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France . The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV)
8183-407: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the ' Didasko Presbytery' , the International Presbyterian Church and two congregations of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster . Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland. Within Scotland the term ' kirk ' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of
8350-426: The Reformed Presbyterians , would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody , as well as eschew the celebration of holy days. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble , but also cassock and surplice (typically
8517-446: The Scottish Reformation of 1560. As a result, the Church of Scotland embraced Reformed theology and presbyterian polity . The Ulster Scots brought their Presbyterian faith with them to Ireland, where they laid the foundation of what would become the Presbyterian Church of Ireland . By the second half of the 17th century, Presbyterians were immigrating to British North America . Scottish and Scotch-Irish immigrants contributed to
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#17327727617188684-430: The Synod of Ulster already required clergy to subscribe to the Westminster Confession . In 1729, the synod passed the Adopting Act , which required clergy to assent to the Westminster Confession and Larger and Shorter Catechisms . However, subscription was only required for those parts of the Confession deemed an "essential and necessary article of faith". Ministers could declare any scruples to their presbytery or
8851-549: The United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as
9018-425: The anxious bench , and prayer groups . Albert Baldwin Dod accused Finney of preaching Pelagianism and urged him to leave the Presbyterian Church. Finney did just that in 1836 when he joined the Congregational church as pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City. The Old School faction was convinced that the Plan of Union with the Congregational churches had undermined Presbyterian doctrine and order. At
9185-424: The episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England . Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to
9352-421: The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719
9519-414: The free will teaching of Arminianism , thereby rejecting the Calvinist doctrines of predestination . Facing charges of heresy for their Arminian beliefs, Presbyterian ministers Richard McNemar and John Thompson, along with Barton W. Stone and two other ministers, chose to withdraw from the Kentucky Synod and form the independent Springfield Presbytery in 1803. These ministers would later dissolve
9686-404: The history of Christianity , but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th century Protestant Reformation . As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations. Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin , who is credited with
9853-418: The ruling elder . An excerpt from Miller (1831) expands this. In every Church completely organized, that is, furnished with all the officers which Christ has instituted and which are necessary for carrying into full effect the laws of his kingdom, there ought to be three classes of officers, viz: at least one Teaching Elder, Bishop, or Pastor — a bench of Ruling Elders — and Deacons. The first to "minister in
10020-456: The "New Side", and their conservative opponents, known as the "Old Side". While the Old Side and New Side disagreed over the possibility of immediate assurance of salvation , the controversy was not primarily theological. Both sides believed in justification by faith , predestination , and that regeneration occurred in stages. In 1738, the synod moved to restrict itinerant preaching and to tighten educational requirements for ministers, actions
10187-430: The 1837 General Assembly, the Old School majority successfully passed resolutions removing all judicatories found under the Plan from the Presbyterian Church. In total, three synods in New York and one synod in Ohio along with 28 presbyteries, 509 ministers, and 60 thousand church members (one-fifth of the PCUSA's membership) were excluded from the church. New School leaders reacted by meeting in Auburn, New York, and issuing
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#173277276171810354-498: The 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court , and St Columba's , Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There
10521-438: The 19th century, liberal theology late in the 19th century, and neo-orthodoxy by the mid-20th century. The theological tensions within the denomination were played out in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, a conflict that led to the development of Christian fundamentalism and has historical importance to modern American evangelicalism . Conservatives dissatisfied with liberal trends left to form
10688-414: The 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the modernist movement characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans. Prominent examples include Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the National Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., features
10855-496: The 20th century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement , including the World Council of Churches . Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches . Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists . Presbyterians in
11022-425: The Auburn Declaration, a 16-point defense of their Calvinist orthodoxy. When the General Assembly met in May 1838 at Philadelphia, the New School commissioners attempted to be seated but were forced to leave and convene their own General Assembly elsewhere in the city. The Old School and New School factions had finally split into two separate churches that were about equal in size. Both churches, however, claimed to be
11189-484: The Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation . Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of
11356-409: The Bible. At the forefront of the controversy in the PCUSA was Charles A. Briggs , a professor at PCUSA's Union Theological Seminary in New York. While Briggs held to traditional Christian teaching in many areas, such as his belief in the virgin birth of Jesus , conservatives were alarmed by his assertion that doctrines were historical constructs that had to change over time. He did not believe that
11523-435: The British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship , developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans , initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Parliament of Scotland , and became one of
11690-403: The Carolinas. Compared to the Church of Scotland, the plan gave presbyteries more power and autonomy. Synods and the General Assembly were to be "agencies for unifying the life of the Church, considering appeals, and promoting the general welfare of the Church as a whole." The plan included provisions from the Church of Scotland's Barrier Act of 1697, which required the General Assembly to receive
11857-523: The Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of
12024-551: The Eastern Seaboard to settle further inland. One of the results was that the PCUSA signed a Plan of Union with the Congregationalists of New England in 1801, which formalized cooperation between the two bodies and attempted to provide adequate visitation and preaching for frontier congregations, along with eliminating rivalry between the two denominations. The large growth rate of the Presbyterian Church in
12191-567: The First Great Awakening, Presbyterian ministers were divided over their assessment of the fruits of the new wave of revivals. Many pointed to "excesses" displayed by some participants as signs that the revivals were theologically compromised, such as groans, laughter, convulsions and "jerks" (see religious ecstasy , holy laughter and slain in the Spirit ). There was also concern over the tendency of revivalist ministers to advocate
12358-409: The General Assembly to take action against Briggs. The 1891 General Assembly vetoed his appointment to Union Theological Seminary's chair of Biblical studies , and two years later Briggs was found guilty of heresy and suspended from the ministry. Ultimately, Union Theological Seminary refused to remove Briggs from his position and severed its ties to the Presbyterian Church. In 1892, conservatives in
12525-511: The General Assembly were successful in adopting the Portland Deliverance, a statement named for the assembly's meeting place, Portland, Oregon. The Deliverance reasserted the church's belief in biblical inerrancy and required any minister who could not affirm the Bible as "the only infallible rule of faith and practice" to withdraw from the Presbyterian ministry. The Portland Deliverance would be used to convict Briggs of heresy. In
12692-528: The General Assembly's attempt to promote peace and unity, two distinct factions, the Old School and the New School, developed through the 1820s over the issues of confessional subscription , revivalism, and the spread of New England theology. The New School faction advocated revivalism and New England theology, while the Old School was opposed to the extremes of revivalism and desired strict conformity to
12859-499: The General Assembly. In 1903, two chapters on "The Holy Spirit " and "The Love of God and Missions" were added to the Confession and a reference to the pope being the anti-christ was deleted. Most objectionable to conservatives, a new " Declaratory Statement " was added to clarify the church's doctrine of election. Conservatives criticized the "Declaratory Statement" and claimed that it promoted Arminianism. The 1903 revision of
13026-628: The Holy Spirit. In presbyterianism, congregations are united in accountability to a regional body called the presbytery, or, in Continental Reformed terminology, the classis , which comes from the Latin word for "fleet". Presbyteries are made up of all the teaching and ruling elders in a particular geographic region. In some Dutch Reformed bodies, a classis serves as a delegated body, which ceases to exist in between meetings, whereas
13193-638: The Native Americans. New Side Presbyterians were responsible for founding Princeton University (originally the College of New Jersey) primarily to train ministers in 1746. By 1758, both sides were ready for reconciliation. Over the years, New Side revivalism had become less radical. At the same time, Old Side Presbyterians were experiencing numerical decline and were eager to share in the New Side's vitality and growth. The two synods merged to become
13360-593: The New School Presbyterian Church. In 1858, Southern synods and presbyteries belonging to the New School withdrew and established the pro-slavery United Synod of the Presbyterian Church. Old School Presbyterians followed in 1861 after the start of hostilities in the American Civil War . In May, the Old School General Assembly passed the controversial Gardiner Spring Resolutions , which called for Presbyterians to support
13527-478: The New School dominated General Assembly of 1831 dismissed the charges. Lyman Beecher , famous revivalist, moral reformer and president of the newly established Lane Theological Seminary , was charged with heresy in 1835 but was also acquitted. The most radical figure in the New School faction was prominent evangelist Charles Grandison Finney . Finney's revivals were characterized by his "New Measures", which included protracted meetings , extemporaneous preaching ,
13694-428: The New Side resented. Tensions between the two sides continued to escalate until the Synod of May 1741, which ended with a definite split between the two factions. The Old Side retained control of the Synod of Philadelphia, and it immediately required unconditional subscription to the Westminster Confession with no option to state scruples. The New Side founded the Synod of New York . The new Synod required subscription to
13861-431: The North and a majority of their presbyteries approved the reunion in 1869 of the PCUSA. In the decades after the reunion of 1869, conservatives expressed fear over the threat of " broad churchism " and modernist theology . Such fears were prompted in part by heresy trials (such as the 1874 acquittal of popular Chicago preacher David Swing ) and a growing movement to revise the Westminster Confession. This liberal movement
14028-548: The Northeast was accompanied by the creation of moral reform organizations, such as Sunday schools , temperance associations, tract and Bible societies , and orphanages. The proliferation of voluntary organizations was encouraged by postmillennialism , the belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur at the end of an era of peace and prosperity fostered by human effort . The 1815 General Assembly recommended
14195-634: The Northeast was also accompanied by revivalism. While calmer and more reserved than those in the South, the revivals of the Second Great Awakening transformed religion in the Northeast, and they were often led by Presbyterians and Congregationalists. The Plan of Union led to the spread of New England theology (also known as the New Divinity and New Haven theology ), originally conceived by Congregationalists. The New England theology modified and softened traditional Calvinism, rejecting
14362-495: The Northeast was in part due to the adoption of Congregationalist settlers along the western frontier. Not unlike the circuit riders in the Episcopal and Methodist traditions, the presbyteries often sent out licentiates to minister in multiple congregations that were spread out over a wide area. To meet the need for educated clergy, Princeton Theological Seminary and Union Presbyterian Seminary were founded in 1812, followed by Auburn Theological Seminary in 1821. Growth in
14529-471: The Old School's repudiation of its teaching against involving the church in political affairs. A majority of Old School leaders in the North were convinced of the orthodoxy of the New School. Some within the Old School, chiefly Princeton theologian Charles Hodge, claimed that there were still ministers within the New School who adhered to New Haven theology. Nevertheless, the Old and New School General Assemblies in
14696-485: The Presbyterian Church in the USA. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania decided that the Old School body was the legal successor of the undivided PCUSA. The Synod of Philadelphia and New York had expressed moderate abolitionist sentiments in 1787 when it recommended that all its members "use the most prudent measures consistent with the interests and state of civil society, in the countries where they live, to procure eventually
14863-579: The Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism . Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith , which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to
15030-570: The Roman date, not the Celtic date." Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms , many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". Presbyterian history is part of
15197-563: The Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith , and the larger and shorter catechisms , which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649. Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine , institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship , often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of
15364-784: The Springfield Presbytery and become the founders of the American Restoration Movement , from which the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and Churches of Christ denominations originate. Meanwhile, the Cumberland Presbytery , also within the Kentucky Synod, faced a shortage of ministers and decided to license clergy candidates who were less educated than was typical and who could not subscribe completely to
15531-475: The Synod of New York and Philadelphia. The united Synod was founded on New Side terms: subscription according to the terms of the Adopting Act; presbyteries were responsible for examining and licensing ordination candidates; candidates were to be examined for learning, orthodoxy and their "experimental acquaintance with religion" (i.e. their personal conversion experiences); and revivals were acknowledged as
15698-711: The United Domestic Missionary Society to become the American Home Missionary Society . The Congregational American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) became the recognized missions agency of the General Assembly, and the United Foreign Missionary Society's operations were merged with the American Board. By 1831, the majority of board members and missionaries of the ABCFM were Presbyterians. As
15865-539: The United States (PCUS) and was commonly nicknamed the "Southern Presbyterian Church" throughout its history, while the PCUSA was known as the "Northern Presbyterian Church". By the 1850s, New School Presbyterians in the North had moved to more moderate positions and reasserted a stronger Presbyterian identity. This was helped in 1852 when the Plan of Union between the New School Church and the Congregationalists
16032-552: The United States came largely from Scottish , Scots-Irish immigrants , and also from New England communities that were originally Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas. Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland , traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba , through the 6th century Hiberno-Scottish mission . Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John ,
16199-681: The Westminster Confession eventually led a large number of congregations from the Arminian–leaning Cumberland Presbyterian Church to reunite with the PCUSA in 1906. While overwhelmingly approved, the reunion caused controversy within the PCUSA due to concerns over doctrinal compatibility and racial segregation in the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. Warfield was a strong critic of the merger on doctrinal grounds. Northern Presbyterians, such as Francis James Grimké and Herrick Johnson , objected to
16366-520: The Westminster Confession in accordance with the Adopting Act, but no college degrees were required for ordination. While the controversy raged, American Presbyterians were also concerned with expanding their influence. In 1740, a New York Board of the Society in Scotland for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge was established. Four years later, David Brainerd was assigned as a missionary to
16533-619: The Westminster Confession. In 1805, the synod suspended many of these ministers, even bringing heresy charges against a number of them, and by 1806 the synod had dissolved the presbytery. In 1810, ministers dissatisfied with the actions of the synod formed the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC). The CPC subscribed to a modified form of the Westminster Confession that rejected the Calvinist doctrines of double predestination and limited atonement . Church growth in
16700-577: The Westminster Confession. The ideological center of Old School Presbyterianism was Princeton Theological Seminary, which under the leadership of Archibald Alexander and Charles Hodge became associated with a brand of Reformed scholasticism known as Princeton Theology . Heresy trials of prominent New School leaders further deepened the division within the denomination. Both the Presbytery and Synod of Philadelphia found Albert Barnes , pastor of First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, guilty of heresy. Old School Presbyterians, however, were outraged when
16867-572: The Word and Doctrine", and to dispense the sacraments; — the second to assist in the inspection and government of the Church; — and the third to "serve tables"; that is, to take care of the Church's funds destined for the support of the poor, and sometimes to manage whatever relates to the temporal support of the gospel and its ministers. Depending upon the specific denomination, teaching elders may also be referred to with terms such as "Minister of Word and Sacrament". The elders are persons chosen from among
17034-451: The agenda. General assemblies meet less regularly than their subordinate courts, often annually, or in the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), every other year. The General Assembly also has members serve as Advisory Delegates. There are four different types of advisory delegates, each with a focus on a different area in the Presbyterian Church like young adult, theological student, missionary and ecumenical. The role of an advisory delegate
17201-546: The approval of a majority of presbyteries before making major changes to the church's constitution and doctrine. The constitution included the Westminster Confession of Faith, together with the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, as the church's subordinate standard (i.e. subordinate to the Bible ) in addition to the (substantially altered) Westminster Directory . The Westminster Confession was modified to bring its teaching on civil government in line with American practices. In 1787,
17368-404: The assembly meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts. He or she presides over meetings of the assembly, and may be called on in a representative function for the remainder of the year. The stated clerk and deputy clerk of the general assembly administer the minutes, correspondence, and business of the assembly. In some cases a separate business convenor is appointed to deal with
17535-478: The cause in which America is now in arms, is the cause of justice, of liberty, and of human nature". Witherspoon and 11 other Presbyterians were signatories to the Declaration of Independence . Even before the war, many Presbyterian felt that the single synod system was no longer adequate to meet the needs of a numerically and geographically expanding church. All clergy were supposed to attend annual meetings of
17702-459: The chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on
17869-567: The church, often referred to as " subordinate standards ". Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation . Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues
18036-524: The congregation ( elders ), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making ( presbytery , synod , and general assembly ). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world. Presbyterianism's roots lie in the Reformation of the 16th century. John Calvin's Republic of Geneva was particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In
18203-411: The congregation and "installed" to a permanent pastorate by the presbytery, have votes as members of the session on any and all matters; however, often they refrain from voting except in tie situations. The Pastor is not a voting member of the congregation. With the Session there is one person, usually an elder but not always, who will be given the title, "Clerk of Session". This person is more or less
18370-462: The congregation and ordained for this service. Beyond that, practices vary: sometimes elders are elected by the congregation, sometimes appointed by the session, in some denominations elders serve for life, others have fixed terms, and some churches appoint elders on a rotation from among willing members in good standing in the church. However, in many churches, ruling elders retain their ordination for life, even though they serve fixed terms. Even after
18537-479: The constituent presbyteries are members of the synod. Like the commissioners to presbyteries, the commissioners to synods do not act on instruction from their congregations or presbyteries, but exercise their own judgement. A synod also has a moderator and clerk, and generally meet less often than the presbytery. Some presbyterian churches, like the Church of Scotland , Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church in America have no intermediate court between
18704-556: The creation of racially segregated presbyteries in the South, a concession demanded by the Cumberland Presbyterians as the price for reunion. Despite these objections, the merger was overwhelmingly approved. Presbyterian Christianity • Protestantism Presbyterianism is a Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders . Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar,
18871-674: The creation of societies to promote morality. Organizations such as the American Bible Society , the American Sunday School Union , and the American Colonization Society , while theoretically interdenominational, were dominated by Presbyterians and considered unofficial agencies of the Presbyterian Church. The support of missionary work was also a priority in the 19th century. The first General Assembly requested that each of
19038-470: The degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard. Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to
19205-584: The denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text. Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led
19372-520: The development of Reformed theology , and the work of John Knox , a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco , a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560,
19539-414: The difference is that every local congregation is independent, and its elders are accountable to its members, and congregationalism's wider assemblies are not ordinarily empowered to enforce discipline. Thus, these are ruled by elders only at the level of the congregations, which are united with one another by covenants of trust. There are two types of elder; the teaching elder (see Minister below) and
19706-498: The doctrine of imputation of Adam's sin , adopting the governmental theory of atonement , and embracing a greater emphasis on free will. It was essentially an attempt to construct a Calvinism conducive to revivalism. While the Synod of Philadelphia condemned the New Divinity as heretical in 1816, the General Assembly disagreed, concluding that New England theology did not conflict with the Westminster Confession. Notwithstanding
19873-401: The elders. In some cases deacons administer the welfare matters of the congregation, while a separate board of management or trustees administers the other material business ( temporalities ) of the congregation, such as its endowments, salaries and buildings. A session is a corporate body of teaching and ruling elders elected by a particular church. sessio from sedere "to sit"), sometimes
20040-452: The end of their terms, they may be active in presbyteries or other bodies, and may serve communion. In addition to sitting on the session and other church courts, ruling elders have duties as individuals. Again, Miller (1831) explains, It is their duty to have an eye of inspection and care over all the members of the congregation; and, for this purpose, to cultivate a universal and intimate acquaintance, as far as may be, with every family in
20207-533: The entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ
20374-768: The established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland . There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland , the United Free Church of Scotland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) , the Associated Presbyterian Church ,
20541-408: The final abolition of slavery in America". At the same time, Presbyterians in the South were content to reinforce the status quo in their religious teaching, such as in "The Negro Catechism" written by North Carolina Presbyterian minister Henry Pattillo. In Pattillo's catechism , slaves were taught that their roles in life had been ordained by God. In 1795, the General Assembly ruled that slaveholding
20708-415: The first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA),
20875-437: The flock of which they are made "overseers". In some denominations they are called Ministers of Word and Sacrament , and in others they are called Teaching Elders . Ministers called to a particular congregation are called pastors , and serve a function analogous to clergy in other denominations. (Because ruling elders are often ordained in a fashion nearly identical to teaching elders, the distinction between lay and clergy
21042-535: The foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere. Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship , which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden. Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship. However, there
21209-834: The four synods appoint and support two missionaries. Presbyterians took leading roles in creating early local and independent mission societies, including the New York Missionary Society (1796), the Northern Berkshire and Columbia Missionary Societies (1797), the Missionary Society of Connecticut (1798), the Massachusetts Missionary Society (1799), and the Boston Female Society for Missionary Purposes (1800). The first denominational missions agency
21376-509: The full congregation. Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders. Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly , although an intermediate level of
21543-464: The historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read. The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland " but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and
21710-596: The larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps". Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton. In 1703
21877-751: The mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others. While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends,
22044-550: The members of the assembly). This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva. It is strongly associated with French , Dutch , Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches . Among the early church fathers, it was noted that the offices of elder and bishop were identical, and were not differentiated until later, and that plurality of elders
22211-627: The monarchy in 1660, Charles II , despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church. However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed
22378-430: The necessity of a conscious conversion experience and the need for higher moral standards among the clergy. Other Presbyterians were concerned that revivalism presented a threat to church order. In particular, the practice of itinerant preaching across presbytery boundaries and the tendency of revivalists to doubt the conversion experiences of other ministers caused controversy between supporters of revivalism, known as
22545-462: The nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to
22712-524: The ordination of women. The general assembly of a denomination often decides on what grounds a person may be ordained, but the ordination of ministers is the right of the presbytery or classis, and the right to extend a call to a minister is the privilege of the members of the parish or congregation. The office of deacon has different meanings among different presbyterian churches. In some churches, deacons exercise responsibility for practical matters of finance and fabric, either separately or together with
22879-425: The other elders. Some Presbyterian denominations enroll ministers as members of their respective congregations, while others enroll the minister as a member of the regional presbytery. The presbyteries are responsible for the ordination of the ministers. Until the 20th century, only men had been eligible for ordination as elders or ministers of the word and sacrament. This is widely not the case any longer, although it
23046-432: The other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down (as higher assemblies exercise limited but important authority over individual congregations, e.g., only the presbytery can ordain ministers, install pastors, and start up, close, and approve relocating a congregation) and from the bottom up (e.g., the moderator and officers are not appointed from above but are rather elected by and from among
23213-464: The pastor serves as Moderator and presides over the session ( primus inter pares ), in which all elders have an equal vote. In some denominations, the pastor is not given a vote; however, in a sitting body of an even number or with a quorum of the session counted they can break a tie by a casting vote. In the Polity of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the pastor and associate pastor(s), if elected by
23380-413: The plan was sent to the presbyteries for ratification. The synod held its last meeting in May 1788. The first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America met in Philadelphia in May 1789. At that time, the church had four synods, 16 presbyteries, 177 ministers, 419 congregations and an estimated membership of 18,000. The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw Americans leaving
23547-573: The presbyters should be placed over the others." This observation was also made by Chrysostom (349–407) in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret (393–457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445. Aerius of Sebaste also attacked the episcopal polity in the 4th century. Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg , who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation
23714-446: The presbytery and the general assembly. The general assembly (or general synod ) is the highest court of presbyterian polity. Each presbytery selects a number of its members to be commissioners to the general assembly. The general assembly is chaired by its own moderator , who is usually elected to a single term. He or she is addressed as moderator during meetings, but like the other moderators, their position has no bearing outside of
23881-416: The presbytery meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts, although typically the moderator (especially if a member of the clergy) will conduct worship and oversee ordinations and installations of ministers as a "liturgical" bishop, and other ordinances which are seen as acts of the presbytery. The stated or principal clerk takes minutes and deals with the correspondence of the presbytery, and
24048-413: The puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the members , and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support
24215-429: The rule of assemblies of presbyters , or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session (or consistory ), though other terms, such as church board , may apply. Groups of local churches are governed by a higher assembly of elders known as the presbytery or classis ; presbyteries can be grouped into a synod , and presbyteries and synods nationwide often join together in
24382-591: The second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland ), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England . An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster
24549-508: The secretary for Session. They take notes on each meeting and are responsible for records of the congregation. In addition they find a wide area of responsibility, including responsibility for conduct of worship should a minister suddenly not be available. Although it is the responsibility of the Moderator (minister), Session Clerks often have the ability to assist in keeping meetings on track due to skills which are received from experience and
24716-451: The step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993. Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches . Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this
24883-656: The struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g. William Robertson Smith ). Some Presbyterian churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland , have no such " conscience clause". The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted the Book of Confessions , which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed ,
25050-401: The synod, but some years attendance was less than thirty percent. In 1785, a proposal for the creation of a General Assembly went before the synod, and a special committee was formed to draw up a plan of government. Under the plan, the old synod was divided into four new synods all under the authority of the General Assembly. The synods were New York and New Jersey, Philadelphia, Virginia, and
25217-603: The synod, which would then decide if the minister's views were acceptable. While crafted as a compromise, the Adopting Act was opposed by those who favored strict adherence to the Confession. Christianity • Protestantism During the 1730s and 1740s, the Presbyterian Church was divided over the impact of the First Great Awakening . Drawing from the Scotch-Irish revivalist tradition, evangelical ministers such as William and Gilbert Tennent emphasized
25384-420: The traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent , Christmas, Ash Wednesday , Holy Week , Easter, Pentecost , etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors , etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as
25551-433: The twentieth century, Presbyterian and Episcopalians tended to be wealthier and more educated (having more graduate and postgraduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in the United States, and were disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business , law, and politics. The Boston Brahmins , who were regarded as the nation's social and cultural elites, were often associated with
25718-577: The values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland. Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning
25885-429: The word Presbyterian is applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War . Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God , the authority of the Scriptures , and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Scotland ensured Presbyterian church government in the 1707 Acts of Union , which created
26052-434: The work of the denomination to be done by a single presbytery, the parishes may be divided into several presbyteries under synods and general assemblies , the synod being the lower court of the two. In the United Church of Canada , this is referred to as "conferences" and "General Council". However, the United Church of Canada does not bear the formal ecclesiastical structure of classic Presbyterianism. Often all members of
26219-406: The worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of
26386-414: Was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541. In the early days of the Scottish Reformation there were Superintendents. There were also Tulchan Bishops and Archbishops. Much of the history of the Church of Scotland and the nation itself is bound up with the relation between Episcopalianism , which the Protestant monarchs favoured, and the Presbyterianism of the reformers. In
26553-405: Was discontinued. Northern Presbyterians of both the Old and New School participated in the Christian Commission that provided religious and social services to Union soldiers during the Civil War. Furthermore, both schools boldly proclaimed the righteousness of the Union cause and engaged in speculation about the role of a newly restored America in ushering in the millennium . This was, in effect,
26720-404: Was evident in its increasing identification with the abolitionist movement. The Old School, however, was convinced that the General Assembly and the larger church should not legislate on moral issues that were not explicitly addressed in the Bible. This effectively drove the majority of Southern Presbyterians to support the Old School faction. The first definitive split over slavery occurred within
26887-417: Was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster ,
27054-405: Was increasingly reluctant to address the issue, preferring to take a moderate stance in the debate, but by the 1830s, tensions over slavery were increasing at the same time the church was dividing over the Old School–New School Controversy. The conflict between Old School and New School factions merged with the slavery controversy. The New School's enthusiasm for moral reform and voluntary societies
27221-502: Was not grounds for excommunication but also expressed support for the eventual abolition of slavery. Later, the General Assembly called slavery "a gross violation of the most precious and sacred rights of human nature; as utterly inconsistent with the law of God". Nevertheless, in 1818, George Bourne , an abolitionist and Presbyterian minister serving in Virginia, was defrocked by his Southern presbytery in retaliation for his strong criticisms of Christian slaveholders. The General Assembly
27388-458: Was one such revival that first grew out of meetings led by Presbyterian minister James McGready . The most famous camp meeting of the Second Great Awakening, the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky, occurred during a traditional Scottish communion season under the leadership of local Presbyterian minister Barton W. Stone . Over 10 thousand people came to Cane Ridge to hear sermons from Presbyterian as well as Methodist and Baptist preachers. Like
27555-543: Was opposed by Princeton theologians A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield . While Darwinian evolution never became an issue for northern Presbyterians as most accommodated themselves to some form of theistic evolution , the new discipline of biblical interpretation known as higher criticism would become highly controversial. Utilizing comparative linguistics, archaeology, and literary analysis, German proponents of high criticism, such as Julius Wellhausen and David Friedrich Strauss , began questioning long-held assumptions about
27722-404: Was the Standing Committee on Mission, which was created in 1802 to coordinate efforts with individual presbyteries and the European missionary societies. The work of the committee was expanded in 1816, becoming the Board of Missions. In 1817, the General Assembly joined with two other Reformed denominations, the American branch of the Dutch Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church in America ) and
27889-421: Was the norm for church government. St. Jerome (347–420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv, said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and before the urging of the devil gave rise to factionalism in religion, so much that it was being said among the people, 'I am of Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the churches were governed by a joint council of elders. After it was... decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among
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