Misplaced Pages

#42957

151-549: PCRC may be an abbreviation for: Panama Canal Railway Company, an operator of the Panama Canal Railway Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title PCRC . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to

302-598: A Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823. Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase . Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to form the town of Memphis . In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in

453-577: A U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months. In the spring of 1798, Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be a judge of the Tennessee Superior Court . In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia , a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but

604-525: A majority of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment . The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention. Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as

755-458: A prisoner exchange . Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health. Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina . She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards. The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14 and increased his hatred for

906-578: A British attack. When his forces arrived at Natchez , they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War , John Armstrong , stating that his volunteers were not needed, and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband. Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on

1057-491: A Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head. The brothers were taken to a prisoner-of-war camp in Camden, South Carolina , where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox. In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in

1208-664: A canal. The choice to use locks and an artificial lake (Gatun) meant that the old railway route from 1855 had to be changed because it followed the Chagres River valley, which would be flooded by the lake. Also, the railway would be extended and altered continuously for the building process. The stock of the Panama Railway Company, vital in canal construction, was entirely controlled by the United States Secretary of War . The construction of

1359-536: A canal. The road over the crest of the continental divide at Culebra was completed from the Atlantic side in January 1855; 37 miles (60 km) of track having been laid from Aspinwall (Colón). A second team, working under less harsh conditions with railroad track, ties, railroad cars, steam locomotives, and other supplies brought around Cape Horn by ship, completed its 11 miles (18 km) of track from Panama City to

1510-418: A cemetery that accepted nearly continuous burials. Cholera , yellow fever , and malaria took a deadly toll on workers. Despite the company's constant importation of high numbers of new workers, there were times when progress stalled for simple lack of workers. All supplies and nearly all foodstuffs had to be imported from thousands of miles away, greatly adding to the cost of construction. Laborers came from

1661-479: A disaster for the country. Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a " corrupt bargain ". After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee. After the election, Jackson's supporters formed

SECTION 10

#1732772111043

1812-497: A fair policy toward Native Americans. Jackson invited the public to the White House , which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob". Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments. These investigations revealed that $ 280,000 (equivalent to $ 8,000,000 in 2023)

1963-663: A force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived. The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December. Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation; General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars. As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them. The climactic battle took place on January 8 when

2114-581: A minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman. He learned to read, write, and work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin, but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry. Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War . Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie , dying from heat exhaustion after

2265-685: A national hero, and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal . Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought, Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed

2416-408: A new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals. In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which

2567-548: A new section, techniques were developed by William Bierd, former head of the Panama Railroad, to lift large sections of track and their attached ties by steam-powered cranes and relocate them intact, without disassembling and rebuilding the track. A dozen men could move a mile of track a day – the work previously done by up to 600 men. This allowed the tracks used by both the steam shovels and dirt trains to be quickly moved to wherever they were needed. While constructing

2718-465: A partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton . Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a "land grab" act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents. Jackson also became a slave trader , transporting enslaved people for the interregional slave market between Nashville and the Natchez District of Spanish West Florida via

2869-484: A railway might be possible. However, the idea was shelved. In 1836, United States President Andrew Jackson commissioned a study of proposed routes for inter-oceanic communication in order to protect the interests of Americans traveling between the oceans and those living in the developing Oregon Country of the Pacific Northwest. The United States acquired a franchise for a trans-Isthmian railroad; however,

3020-521: A regular army unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry Regiment . The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River , which was manned by about 1,000 men. The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred. Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies. The victory broke

3171-409: A roadbed. Fortunately, they had found a quarry near Porto Bello, Panama , so they could load sandstone onto barges and tow it to Aspinwall to get the backfill needed to build the roadbed. Built as the steam revolution was just starting, the only power equipment was a steam-driven pile driver, steam tugs, and steam locomotives equipped with gondola and dump cars for carrying fill material; the rest of

SECTION 20

#1732772111043

3322-513: A thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped slaves , and various indigenous peoples. It had become a magnet for escapees and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers, even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people. Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of

3473-400: A three-ton steel plow was put on the last car (or a car carrying the plow was attached as the last car) and a huge winch with a braided steel cable stretching the length of all cars was attached to the engine. The winch, powered by the train's steam engine, pulled the plow the length of the dirt loaded train by winching up the steel cable. The plow scraped the dirt off the railroad cars, allowing

3624-491: A writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city. Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the war with the British, had been signed, his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans. Jackson's victory made him

3775-517: A year, and had to be replaced with ties made of lignum vitae , a wood so hard that they had to drill the ties before driving in the screw spikes . The line was eventually built as double track . The railroad became one of the most profitable in the world. Upon completion, the railway was proclaimed an engineering marvel of the era. Until the opening of the Panama Canal , it carried the heaviest volume of freight per unit length of any railroad in

3926-557: The American Civil War , and remained in use in Panama until the railroad was rebuilt in 2001. The next step was making things permanent and upgrading the railway. Hastily erected wooden bridges that quickly rotted in the tropical heat and often torrential rain had to be replaced with iron bridges. Wooden trestles had to be converted to gravel embankments before they rotted away. The original pine railroad ties lasted only about

4077-732: The Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779. After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills. They served as couriers, and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780. Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of

4228-456: The Battle of Talladega . By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers, but he continued the offensive. The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek . Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother. Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of

4379-509: The Battle of the Boyne in 1690. Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764). Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons. Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew

4530-580: The Camino Real (royal road), and later the Las Cruces trail, built and maintained for transportation of cargo and passengers across the Isthmus of Panama . These were the main routes across the isthmus for more than three centuries. By the 19th century businessmen thought it was time to develop a cheaper, safer, and faster alternative. Railroad technology had developed in the early 19th century. Given

4681-554: The Cape Horn of South America, it was the first steamship on the west coast of South and North America . When it stopped at Panama City on January 17, 1849, it was besieged by about 700 desperate gold seekers. Eventually, it departed Panama City for California on January 31, 1849, with almost 400 passengers, and entered San Francisco Bay, a distance of about 3,500 miles (5,600 km), on February 28, 1849 – 145 days after leaving New York. In San Francisco nearly all its crew except

PCRC - Misplaced Pages Continue

4832-462: The Culebra Cut (Gaillard Cut), about 160 loaded dirt trains went out daily and returned empty. The railroads, steam shovels, steam-powered cranes, rock crushers, cement mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills used to drill holes for explosives (about 30,000,000 pounds [14,000 t] were used) were some of the new construction equipment used to construct the canal. Nearly all this equipment

4983-667: The Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party . The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates. Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto , and he was accurately labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh. A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including

5134-583: The First Seminole War , which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824 . He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay , the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election . Jackson's supporters alleged that there

5285-660: The Mississippi River and the Natchez Trace . While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson , Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards , and the two were separated by 1789. After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved, living together as husband and wife. Robards petitioned for divorce, which

5436-672: The Pacific Mail Steamship Company —to provide connecting steamship services between New York and Panama on the Atlantic and Panama and San Francisco on the Pacific . However, the company also maintained its own fleet of smaller watercraft for local work, and over the course of its history also ran two of its own steamship lines. The first of these, the Central American Line, was established on

5587-443: The Panama Canal was envisioned by John Frank Stevens , chief American railroad construction engineer, as a huge earthmoving project using the extended railroad system. Many tracks were added temporarily to transport the sand and rock from the excavation. Stevens used the biggest and most durable equipment available. The French equipment was nearly all judged obsolete, worn out, or too light duty, and nearly all their railroad equipment

5738-518: The Republic of New Granada ) by which the United States guaranteed Colombian sovereignty over Panama and was authorized to build a railroad or canal at the Panamanian isthmus, guaranteeing its open transit. In 1847, the east–west transit across the isthmus was by native dugout canoe (and later by modified lifeboats) up the often dangerous Chagres River. Travelers had to go overland by mules for

5889-581: The Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida. The Panic of 1819 , the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship. In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821. He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health. During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been

6040-412: The U.S. Congress . Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states , Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans . Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War . He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards . He briefly served in

6191-461: The U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate , representing Tennessee . After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage , becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and

PCRC - Misplaced Pages Continue

6342-600: The United States , Europe , Colombia , China , the Caribbean islands, and also included some African slaves . Many of these workers had come to Panama to seek their fortune and had arrived with little or no identification. Many died with no known next of kin, nor permanent address, nor even a known surname . For most of the 19th century, the Panama Railway relied upon third-party companies—most notably

6493-507: The annexation of Texas . Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions on his legacy are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution , while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Scholarly rankings of presidents historically rated Jackson's presidency as above average. Since the late 20th century, his reputation declined, and in

6644-565: The 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July. At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who

6795-455: The 19th century, today it is operated as Panama Canal Railway Company ( reporting mark : PCRC). Since 1998 it has been jointly owned by then Kansas City Southern , now Canadian Pacific Kansas City , and Mi-Jack Products and leased to the government of Panama. The Panama Canal Railway is primarily dedicated to freight transport, but it has also operated a passenger service between Panama City and Colón . The Spanish improved what they called

6946-622: The 21st century his placement in rankings of presidents fell. Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas . His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster , Ireland, in 1765. Jackson's father was born in Carrickfergus , County Antrim , around 1738, and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after

7097-602: The American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage. Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from Secretary of

7248-475: The British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster. The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 60. The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat. Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved

7399-576: The Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson, and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign

7550-598: The Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus, and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures. Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender. When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race. Afterwards, Jackson won

7701-486: The Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States. In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason. Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators. He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it

SECTION 50

#1732772111043

7852-523: The Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended . In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of

8003-596: The Native American tribes, and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire . Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest . After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers, who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against

8154-563: The Pacific in 1856, and linked ports in Nicaragua , Costa Rica , San Salvador and Guatemala to Panama City. This shipping line initially proved highly lucrative, providing sufficient trade to justify the deployment of seven steamships, and for a time actually outdoing the railway itself in profits. Eventually, however, Britain’s Pacific Steam Navigation Company began providing stiff competition, and with overall profits declining due to

8305-466: The Pacific, being 263.9 feet (80.4 m) above the mean tide of the Atlantic Ocean and the summit ridge 287 feet (87 m) above the same level. The gauge was 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) in 53 lb/yd (26 kg/m), Ω-shaped rail. This gauge was that of the southern United States railway companies at the time. This gauge was converted to standard in the United States in May 1886 after

8456-550: The Panama Railroad Steamship Company was renamed the Panama Line. The line continued in service, excepting an interruption during World War II , until 1981, when the last of its ships was sold and the government-owned steamship service between the United States and Panama came to an end. In 1904 the United States obtained consent from the newly-formed Panamanian government to build and operate

8607-406: The Red Sticks. He headed south from Fayetteville , Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base. He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies. Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at

8758-447: The SS Georgia and the SS Philadelphia , with about 1,000 passengers, were forced to shelter in Bahía Limón , Panama, owing to a hurricane in the Caribbean . Since the railroad's docks had been completed by this time and rail had been laid 8 miles (13 km) up to Gatún on the Chagres River, it was possible to unload the ships' cargoes of emigrants and their luggage and transport them by rail, using flatcars and gondolas, for at least

8909-433: The Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828 , which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law. Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into

9060-399: The Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel , stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805. He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America". He informed

9211-406: The Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it", and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition. Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor. Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned

SECTION 60

#1732772111043

9362-455: The Treasury William Crawford , he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand . Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at Prospect Bluff , which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than

9513-449: The United States , arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle , the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt . He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas . After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk , as well as

9664-401: The United States' acquisition of Alta California in 1846, the Oregon Territory in 1848, and the Mexican–American War and with the prospective movement of many more settlers to and from the West Coast, the United States again turned its attention to securing a safe, reliable, and speedy link between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1846 the United States signed a treaty with Colombia (then

9815-423: The United States, the Caribbean Islands , and as far away as Ireland , India , China , and Australia . After almost 20 months of work, the Panama Railroad had laid about 8 miles (13 km) of track and had spent about $ 1,000,000 to cross the swamps to Gatún . The project's fortunes turned in November 1851 – just as they were running out of the original $ 1,000,000 – when two large paddle steamers ,

9966-447: The United States. Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile , Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of West Florida , Mateo González Manrique , of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality. The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet

10117-401: The air. Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status . He became a protégé of William Blount , one of the most powerful men in the territory. Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge-advocate for the militia the following year. He also got involved in land speculation, eventually forming

10268-458: The basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic . He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller 420-acre (170 ha) plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage. He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant . The Hermitage grew to 1,000 acres (400 ha), making it one of

10419-477: The buildings in the new town had to be built on stilts to keep them above the water. As more worker housing was needed, abandoned ships brought to the mouth of the Chagres River as part of the California Gold Rush were towed near the island and used for temporary housing. A steam-powered pile driver was brought from New York. Docks were constructed on pile-driven timbers, more of the island was stripped of vegetation, and elevated living spaces, docks, warehouses, and

10570-469: The canal where it could and was moved and reconstructed where it interfered with the canal work. In addition to moving and expanding the railroad where needed, considerable track additions, extensive machine shops and maintenance facilities were added, and other upgrades were made to the rail system. These improvements were started at about the same time the extensive mosquito abatement projects were undertaken, by Stevens, to make it safer to work in Panama. Once

10721-450: The captain deserted to seek their fortunes in the city and the gold fields. The ship was stranded for about four months until the company could buy a new supply of coal and hire a new – and much more expensive – crew. The route between California and Panama was soon frequently traveled, as it provided one of the fastest links between San Francisco, California , and the East Coast cities, about 40 days' transit in total. Nearly all

10872-407: The city of Aspinwall (now Colón ) was founded on 650 acres (260 ha) on the western end of Manzanillo Island, a treacherously marshy islet covered with mangrove trees. The board solicited bids from construction companies in the United States to build the railroad. George Totten and John Trautwine initially submitted one of the winning bids. After surveying the railroad's proposed course and

11023-512: The company had finished 23 miles (37 km) of track and reached the Chagres River, where an enormous bridge was to be built. The first wooden bridge failed when the Chagres rose by over 40 feet (12 m) in a day and washed it away. Work was begun on a much higher, 300-foot-long (91 m), hefty iron bridge, which took more than a year to finish. In all, the company built more than 170 bridges and culverts. In January 1854, excavation began at

11174-404: The company. Since there were no harbor facilities on the Atlantic side of the isthmus, they needed to create a town with docking facilities to unload their railroad supplies there. Refusing to allow Law onto the board, the directors decided to start building harbor facilities, an Atlantic terminus , and their railroad from the vacant site of Manzanillo Island. Starting in May 1850, what would become

11325-540: The completion of the transcontinental railroad in the United States—which provided a direct link between that country's East and West coasts—the Panama Railway liquidated the Central American Line in the late 1860s. When construction of the Panama Canal began in 1881, the shipping service from New York to Panama had to be greatly expanded. Rather than continuing to rely on third parties for these services,

11476-560: The cost and difficulty of constructing a canal with the available technology, a railway seemed the ideal solution. President Bolívar of La Gran Colombia (Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Colombia) commissioned a study into the possibility of building a railway from Chagres (on the Chagres River ) to the town of Panama City. This study was carried out between 1827 and 1829, just as locomotives were being invented. Previously railroads used horses for motive power. The report stated that such

11627-460: The difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname " Hickory " (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness. After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee , got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton . Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him. Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out

11778-565: The discovery of gold in California in January 1848 created a rush of emigrants wanting to cross the Isthmus of Panama to go to California. The first steamship used on the Pacific run was the $ 200,000 three-mast, dual- paddle steamer SS  California . It was 203 feet (62 m) in length, 33.5 feet (10.2 m) in beam, and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep, with a draft of 14 feet (4.3 m), and grossed 1,057 tons. When it sailed around

11929-530: The elite families of Tennessee. In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson . Their dispute started over payments for a forfeited horse race, escalating for six months until they agreed to the duel. Dickinson fired first. The bullet hit Jackson in the chest, but shattered against his breastbone. He returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation. Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr 's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive

12080-434: The entire trainload of dirt cars to be unloaded in ten minutes or less. The plow and winch were then detached for use on another train. Another plow, mounted on a steam engine, then plowed the dirt spoils away from the track. When the fill got large enough, the track was relocated on top of the old fill to allow almost continuous unloading of new fill with minimal effort. When the steam shovels or dirt trains needed to move to

12231-401: The era. The company bought exclusive rights from the government of Colombia (then known as Republic of New Granada , of which Panama was a part) to build the railroad across the isthmus. The railway carried significant traffic even while it was under construction, with traffic carried by canoe and mules over the unfinished sections. This had not been originally intended, but people crossing

12382-593: The execution of six militiamen for desertion. Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days, and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed

12533-466: The final 20 miles (32 km) over the old Spanish trails. The trails had fallen into serious disrepair after some 50 years of little or no maintenance; the 120 inches (3 m) of rain each year in the April–December rainy season also made the trails hard to maintain. A transit from the Atlantic to the Pacific or vice versa would usually take four to eight days by dugout canoe and mule. The transit

12684-443: The first large-scale uses of large electrical motors. Electricity-powered donkey engines pulled the ships through the locks on railroad tracks laid parallel to the locks. New technology not available in the 1850s allowed earth cuts and fills to be used on the new railroad that were many times larger than those done in the original 1851–1855 construction. The rebuilt, much improved, and often rerouted Panama Railway continued alongside

12835-431: The first part of their journey up the Chagres River on their way to Panama City . Desperate to get off the ships and across the isthmus, the gold seekers paid $ 0.50 per mile and $ 3.00 per 100 pounds of luggage to be hauled to the end of the track. This infusion of money saved the company and made it possible to raise more capital to make it an ongoing moneymaker. The company's directors immediately ordered passenger cars, and

12986-399: The full length of its grade on January 28, 1855, more than one-third of its $ 8 million cost had already been paid for from fares and freight tariffs. At $ 25, the first-class fare, one way, was one of the highest rates in existence for a 47 miles (76 km) ride. High prices for carrying freight and passengers, despite very expensive ongoing maintenance and upgrades, made the railroad one of

13137-442: The garrison at Mobile, and led his troops to New Orleans. Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814. There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte 's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek, paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites. This gave Jackson

13288-479: The garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida. White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles , who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida. In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct

13439-450: The gold that was shipped out of California went by the fast Panama route. Several new and larger paddle steamers were soon plying this new route. In January 1849, Aspinwall hired Colonel George W. Hughes to lead a survey party and pick a proposed Panama Railroad roadbed to Panama City . The eventual survey turned out to be full of errors, omissions, and optimistic forecasts, which made it of little use. In April 1849, William Henry Aspinwall

13590-475: The governor, Archibald Roane , broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery. Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street. Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other. Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804. He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on

13741-414: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PCRC&oldid=933046425 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Panama Canal Railway The original line was built by the United States and the principal incentive

13892-414: The isthmus to California and returning east were eager to use such track as had been laid. When only 7 miles (11 km) of track had been completed, the railway was doing a brisk business, charging $ 0.50 per mile per person for the train ride and increasing to $ 25 per person (first class) when the line was finally completed. By the time the line was officially completed and the first revenue train ran over

14043-609: The key individuals in building the railway were William H. Aspinwall, David Hoadley , George Muirson Totten, and John Lloyd Stephens . The railroad was built and originally owned by a publicly traded corporation based in New York City , the Panama Rail Road Company, which was chartered by the State of New York on April 7, 1849, and the stock in which would eventually become some of the most highly valued of

14194-478: The largest cotton-growing plantations in the state. Like most planters in the Southern United States , Jackson used slave labor . In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150. Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves. Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership

14345-434: The like were constructed. Before the railroad construction could get fully started, the island was connected to the Panamanian mainland by a causeway supported by pile-driven timbers. The first rolling stock, consisting of a steam locomotive built by William Sellers & Co., and several gondola cars, arrived in February 1851. The required steam locomotives, railroad cars, ties, rails, and other equipment were unloaded at

14496-442: The loosened material lay. The steam shovels, moving on one set of tracks, picked up the loosened dirt and piled it on the flat cars traveling on a parallel set of tracks. The dirt was piled high against the one closed side of the car. The train moved forward until all cars were filled. A typical train had 20 dirt cars arranged as essentially one long car. On arrival of the train at one of the approximately 60 different dumping grounds,

14647-535: The militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre . The Red Sticks , a Creek Confederacy faction that had allied with Tecumseh , a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek . Jackson's objective was to destroy

14798-504: The mosquitoes were under control, much of the railroad was ready to go to work. The railway greatly assisted the building of the Panama Canal. Besides hauling millions of tons of men, equipment, and supplies, the railroad did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions of cubic yards of material removed from the required canal cuts were broken up by explosives, loaded by steam shovels , mounted on one set of railroad tracks, loaded onto rail cars, and hauled out by locomotives pulling

14949-448: The most profitable in the world. Engineering and medical difficulties made the Panama Railway the most expensive railway, per unit length of track, built at the time. It is estimated that from 5,000 to 10,000 people may have died in the construction of the railroad, though the Panama Railway company kept no official count and the total may be higher or lower. Cholera , malaria , and yellow fever killed thousands of workers, who were from

15100-414: The new canal and across Gatun Lake . The railroad was completed in its final configuration in 1912, two years before the canal, at a cost of $ 9 million—$ 1 million more than the original. After World War II , few additional improvements were made to the Panama Railway. The United States returned control of the railroad to Panama in 1979, and conditions began to decline. By the 1990s, service had declined to

15251-399: The new rolling stock of about 115 powerful locomotives, 2,300 dirt spoils railroad cars, and 102 railroad-mounted steam shovels brought in from the United States and elsewhere. This work was commenced by the first chief engineer, John Findley Wallace (1904–1905). The steam shovels were some of the largest in the world when they were introduced. The new permanent railroad closely paralleled

15402-401: The newly constructed docks and driven across the track laid across the about 200-yard (180 m) causeway separating the island from the mainland. This causeway connected the Atlantic terminus to the railroad and allowed the ties, iron rails , steam engines, workers, backfill, and other construction material to be hauled onto the mainland. Later, passengers and freight would go the same way. As

15553-556: The nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others. In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent plurality of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes , receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England , Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had

15704-794: The ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution. In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry, who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office. Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain , but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it. Van Buren—along with newspaper editors Amos Kendall and Francis Preston Blair —would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet , an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed

15855-465: The people, blaming banks for the country's depression. During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams , who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823. He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He

16006-428: The point that trains were limited to 10 mph (16 km/h), and the railroad was losing millions of dollars per month. Recognizing the railroad was operating far below its potential, in 1998 the government of Panama offered private companies a 50-year concession to take over and rebuild the railroad. Except for dedicated railroad sections, such as the concrete factory, the broad 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) gauge

16157-403: The popular will, but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system . Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat affair" or "Eaton affair". The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret . She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she

16308-584: The power of the Red Sticks. Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies, and starving Red Stick women and children. The campaign ended when William Weatherford , the Red Stick leader, surrendered, although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida . On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later

16459-529: The president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act , an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones. During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employees and replaced them with loyal Democrats. Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption by making officeholders responsible to

16610-471: The probable construction difficulties and uncertainties, they withdrew their bid. Totten agreed to become the chief engineer on the railroad construction project, working for a salary instead of as a general contractor. A new town on the Atlantic end of the railroad would have to be built on swampy ground that was often awash at high tide. The mangrove, palms, and poisonous manchineel ( manzanilla ) trees and other jungle vegetation had to be felled, and many of

16761-458: The proposed route passed through a jungle of gelatinous swamps infested with alligators , the heat was stifling, mosquitoes and sandflies were everywhere, and deluges of up to 3 yards (2.7 m) of rain for almost half the year required some workers to work in swamp water up to four feet deep. When they tried to build a railroad near Aspinwall, the swamps were apparently deep, often requiring over 200 feet (60 m) of gravel backfill to secure

16912-459: The railroad progressed, more of the island was filled in, and the causeway was expanded to permanently connect the island to the mainland; its island status disappeared and the town of Aspinwall was created. In May 1850, the first preparations were begun on Manzanillo Island, and the start of the roadway was partially cleared of trees and jungle on the mainland. Quickly, the difficulty of the scheme became apparent. The initial 8 miles (13 km) of

17063-417: The railway began passenger and freight operations with about 40 miles (64 km) of track still to be laid. Each year it added more and more track and charged more for its services. This greatly boosted the value of the company's franchise, enabling it to sell more stock to finance the remainder of the project, which took more than $ 8,000,000 and cost 5,000 to 10,000 workers' lives to complete. By July 1852,

17214-557: The railway established a new steamship company, the Columbian Line, in 1893, to transport company equipment, supplies and personnel between New York and Colón . In 1896, the Columbian Line was renamed the Panama Railroad Steamship Company, and with the purchase by the United States government of the Panama Railroad Company in 1905, the steamship company also became wholly government-owned. At this time, ships of

17365-464: The scheme was disrupted by the economic downturn after the business panic of 1837 , and came to nothing. In 1838 a French company was given a concession for the construction of a road, rail, or canal route across the isthmus. An initial engineering study recommended a sea-level canal from Bahía Limón to the bay of Boca del Monte, 12 miles (19 km) west of Panama City. The proposed project collapsed for lack of technology and funding needed. Following

17516-544: The soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane. They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle, and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War. Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce

17667-467: The spoils cars running on parallel tracks. Most of the cars carrying the dirt spoils were wooden flat cars lined with steel floors that used a crude but effective unloading device, the Lidgerwood system. The railroad cars had only one side, and steel aprons bridged the spaces between them. The rock and dirt were first blasted loose by explosives. Two sets of tracks were then built or moved up to where

17818-629: The steamship company included the Allianca , Advance , Finance , Panama , Cristobal , and Ancon , the latter becoming the first ship to officially complete a transit of the newly-opened canal in 1914. A downturn in world trade during the Great Depression reduced the number of ships from six to two. In the late 1930s, the two remaining ships were retired and three new ones, named Panama , Ancon and Cristobal after their predecessors, were built to replace them; around this time,

17969-419: The summit from the Pacific side of the isthmus at the same time. On a rainy midnight on January 27, 1855, lit by sputtering whale oil lamps, the last rail was set in place on pine crossties. Chief engineer George Totten , in pouring rain with a nine-pound maul , drove the spike that completed the railroad. The next day the first locomotive with freight and passenger cars passed from sea to sea. The huge project

18120-481: The summit of the Continental Divide at the Culebra Cut , where the earth had to be cut from 20 feet (6 m) to 40 feet (12 m) deep over a distance of about 2,500 feet (760 m). Several months were spent digging. In March 1854, 700 Chinese laborers arrived to work for the Panama Railroad Company. Decades later, the Panama Canal project required years to cut through this area deeply enough for

18271-544: The values he associated with Britain, in particular aristocracy and political privilege. After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler, briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children. In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina , where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay. He completed his training under John Stokes , and

18422-596: The war as he may think best". Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe , "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks , and occupied Pensacola . Seminole and Spanish resistance

18573-414: The work had to be done by laborers wielding machete , axe , pick , shovel , black powder , and mule cart. As more track was laid, the workers had to continually add backfill to the roadbed, as it continued to slowly sink into the swamp. Once about 2 miles (3.2 km) of track were laid, the first solid ground was reached, at what was then called Monkey Hill (now Mount Hope). This was soon converted to

18724-604: The world. The existence of the railway was one of the keys to the selection of Panama as the site of the canal. In 1881 the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique purchased controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company. In 1904, the United States government under Theodore Roosevelt purchased the railway from the French canal company. At the time, railway assets included some 75 miles (121 km) of track, 35 locomotives , 30 passenger cars, and 900 freight cars. Much of this equipment

18875-549: Was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges. On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom , launching the War of 1812 . Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues, it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement, undermine British support of

19026-476: Was a " corrupt bargain " between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party . Jackson ran again in 1828 , defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act . This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing , displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of

19177-520: Was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death. With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine, the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons. Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session, and

19328-743: Was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787. Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina, which would later become the state of Tennessee . While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough . While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age. He also fought his first duel , accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery , of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in

19479-593: Was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation. He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries. Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty. Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses . In 1824, most of

19630-590: Was born. Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford. Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation, which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina , but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina. When Jackson was young, Elizabeth thought he might become

19781-488: Was built by new, extensive machine-building technology developed and made in the United States by companies such as the Joshua Hendy Iron Works . In addition operation of the canal used large refrigeration systems for making ice, large electrical motors to power the pumps and controls on the canal's locks, and other new technology. Extensive electrical generation and distribution systems were built, one of

19932-410: Was chosen head of the Panama Railroad company, which was incorporated in the State of New York and initially raised $ 1,000,000 in capital. In early 1850, George Law , owner of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company , bought up the options of the land from the mouth of the Chagres River to the end of Navy Bay in order to force the directors of the new Panama Railroad to give him a position on the board of

20083-406: Was completed. Upon completion the railroad stretched 47 miles, 3,020 feet (76 km), with a maximum grade of 60 feet to the mile (11.4 m/km, or 1.14%). The summit grade, located 37.38 miles (60.16 km) from the Atlantic and 10.2 miles (16.4 km) from the Pacific, was 258.64 feet (78.83 m) above the assumed grade at the Atlantic terminus and 242.7 feet (74.0 m) above that at

20234-404: Was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British subjects , Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot , who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an international incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain. Calhoun wanted him censured for violating

20385-488: Was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British , Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in

20536-501: Was elected to be its U.S. representative . In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty , criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington. He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests. The state legislature elected him to be

20687-889: Was finalized, and Rachel heard about the accusation. She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill. She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later. Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can." Jackson arrived in Washington, D.C. , on February 11, and began forming his cabinet. He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General. Jackson

20838-569: Was fraught with dangers, and travelers were subject to contracting tropical diseases along the way. William H. Aspinwall , the man who had won the bid for the building and operating the Pacific mail steamships, conceived a plan to construct a railway across the isthmus. He and his partners created a company registered in New York, the Panama Railroad Company, raised $ 1,000,000 from the sale of stock, and hired companies to conduct engineering and route studies. Their venture happened to be well-timed, as

20989-529: Was granted in 1793 on the basis of Rachel's infidelity. The couple legally married in January 1794. In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill , on 640 acres (260 ha) of land near Nashville. Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party , the dominant party in Tennessee. He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796. When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he

21140-465: Was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend. Jackson was the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol . In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe

21291-592: Was interpreted as his being against representative democracy. Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people   ... must be heard". Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election. He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice-presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren. Meanwhile, Adams's support from

21442-549: Was later also described by some as representing a "transcontinental" railroad, despite traversing only the narrow isthmus connecting the North and South American continents . For a time the Panama Railroad also owned and operated ocean-going ships that provided mail and passenger service to a few major US East Coast and West Coast cities, respectively. Known as the Panama Railroad Company when founded in

21593-637: Was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy. With President James Madison 's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson . The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender 23,000,000 acres (9,300,000 ha) of land to

21744-577: Was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for. In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected. Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away. For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been deadly. Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among

21895-407: Was not built for heavy-duty use. Some of this French equipment was melted down and converted into medals presented to men working on the Panama Canal. Also, since the 1855 route followed the Chagres valley (which would become Gatun Lake), the route had to change. The new railroad, starting in 1904, had to be greatly upgraded with heavy-duty double-tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate all

22046-561: Was repulsed at Fort Bowyer . Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7. Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West. He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened

22197-475: Was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate. He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812. He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington. He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all

22348-568: Was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $ 1 million (equivalent to $ 28,600,000 in 2023). Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system. Jackson implemented a principle he called " rotation in office ". The previous custom had been for

22499-551: Was the vast increase in passenger and freight traffic from the Eastern United States to California following the 1849 California Gold Rush . The United States Congress had provided subsidies to companies to operate mail and passenger steamships on the coasts, and supported some funds for construction of the railroad, which began in 1850; the first revenue train ran over the full length on January 28, 1855. Referred to as an inter-oceanic railroad when it opened, it

22650-425: Was used. This gauge was also used for the locomotives along the locks ("mules"). When the gauge for the railroad was changed in 2001, the mules kept the broad gauge. Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh president of the United States , serving from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency , he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of

22801-399: Was worn out or obsolete and had to be scrapped. The railway cost some US$ 8 million to build – eight times the initial 1850 estimate – and presented considerable engineering challenges, passing over mountains and through swamps . Over 300 bridges and culverts needed to be built along the route. It was built and financed by private companies from the United States . Among

#42957