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95-728: The Potrero Hills also known as the Potrero Ridge and Point Molate Hills is a chaparral and forested escarpment that crests northwest to southeast along the San Pablo Peninsula in Richmond, California . The steep hills crest from Point Richmond in the south to Point San Pablo in the north. They were formed by pressure created by the San Pablo Fault a sub-fault of the Hayward Fault . Part of

190-449: A free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin ,

285-669: A national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic . On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021. On 19 December 2021,

380-591: A parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute . After

475-576: A plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes. The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by

570-529: A referendum in 1988 , and was succeeded by a center-left coalition , which ruled until 2010. Chile is a developing country with a high-income economy and is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America. Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development. Chile is a founding member of the United Nations ,

665-626: A campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation . Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power. A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As

760-539: A chaparral fire becomes. Chile Chile ( / ˈ tʃ ɪ l i / CHIL -ee or / ˈ tʃ ɪ l eɪ / CHIL -ay , Spanish: [ˈtʃile] ), officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in western South America . It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica , stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and

855-434: A fire. Plants that are long-lived in the seed bank or serotinous with induced germination after fire include chamise , Ceanothus, and fiddleneck . Some chaparral plant communities may grow so dense and tall that it becomes difficult for large animals and humans to penetrate, but may be teeming with smaller fauna in the understory. The seeds of many chaparral plant species are stimulated to germinate by some fire cue (heat or

950-405: A high-intensity crown-fire regime, meaning that fires consume nearly all the above ground growth whenever they burn, with a historical frequency of 30 to 150 years or more. A detailed analysis of historical fire data concluded that fire suppression activities have been ineffective at excluding fire from southern California chaparral, unlike in ponderosa pine forests. In addition, the number of fires

1045-475: A large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756,950 square kilometers (292,260 sq mi) of land area. It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire . Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S , and longitudes 66° and 75°W . Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile

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1140-414: A leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric , won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader. On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera. Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women. On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in

1235-593: A letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil , the Galapagos Islands , and the Philippines . There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled. Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to

1330-439: A native shrubland to non-native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change. There are two older hypotheses relating to California chaparral fire regimes that caused considerable debate in the past within the fields of wildfire ecology and land management. Research over the past two decades have rejected these hypotheses: The perspective that older chaparral

1425-643: A natural barrier protecting the Point Molate area from ammonia and other contaminants that could be released from the Chevron Richmond Refinery in the event of a disaster. A pass is carved into it at its southern end for Interstate 580 . Some of the ridge was also formerly used for goat grazing and quarrying at the Blake Brothers Quarry. A weather station sits atop a peak overlooking Point San Pablo . Point Potrero Pond

1520-555: A period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world. 2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro 's subway fare, the increased cost of living , privatization and inequality prevalent in the country. On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call

1615-536: A period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform , including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At

1710-710: A prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins , who challenged Carrera's leadership. Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín , hero of the Argentine War of Independence , led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic . The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved

1805-490: A reformist president, Arturo Alessandri , whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo , who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what

1900-473: A very large number of animal species. The following is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the cismontane chaparral ecosystems. Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral — transmontane ("the other side of the mountain") chaparral —refers to the desert shrubland habitat and chaparral plant community growing in the rainshadow of these ranges. Transmontane chaparral features xeric desert climate, not Mediterranean climate habitats, and

1995-740: A vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing. An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight , plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of

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2090-520: A year. This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall. The chaparral ecosystem as a whole is adapted to be able to recover from naturally infrequent, high-intensity fire (fires occurring between 30 and 150 years or more apart); indeed, chaparral regions are known culturally and historically for their impressive fires. (This does create a conflict with human development adjacent to and expanding into chaparral systems.) Additionally, Native Americans burned chaparral near villages on

2185-500: Is a small lake near the Richmond–San Rafael Bridge toll plaza near the south of the hills. The hills are dotted with tank farms and polluted sites from the former Point Molate Naval Fuel Depot . The hills vegetation is largely composed of eucalyptus woodlands , chaparral , grasslands with some wetlands as well. Chaparral Many chaparral shrubs have hard sclerophyllous evergreen leaves, as contrasted with

2280-558: Is also referred to as desert chaparral . Desert chaparral is a regional ecosystem subset of the deserts and xeric shrublands biome , with some plant species from the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion . Unlike cismontane chaparral, which forms dense, impenetrable stands of plants, desert chaparral is often open, with only about 50 percent of the ground covered. Individual shrubs can reach up to 10 feet (3.0 m) in height. Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral

2375-510: Is found in areas with steep topography and shallow stony soils, while adjacent areas with clay soils, even where steep, tend to be colonized by annual plants and grasses. Some chaparral species are adapted to nutrient-poor soils developed over serpentine and other ultramafic rock, with a high ratio of magnesium and iron to calcium and potassium, that are also generally low in essential nutrients such as nitrogen. Another phytogeography system uses two California chaparral and woodlands subdivisions:

2470-612: Is found on the eastern slopes of major mountain range systems on the western sides of the deserts of California . The mountain systems include the southeastern Transverse Ranges (the San Bernardino and San Gabriel Mountains ) in the Mojave Desert north and northeast of the Los Angeles basin and Inland Empire; and the northern Peninsular Ranges (San Jacinto, Santa Rosa , and Laguna Mountains ), which separate

2565-427: Is increasing in step with population growth and exacerbated by climate change. Chaparral stand age does not have a significant correlation to its tendency to burn. Large, infrequent, high-intensity wildfires are part of the natural fire regime for California chaparral. Extreme weather conditions (low humidity, high temperature, high winds), drought, and low fuel moisture are the primary factors in determining how large

2660-430: Is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors , who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia , one of Francisco Pizarro 's lieutenants, who founded

2755-676: Is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater 's lava tube . The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization. They fought against

2850-486: Is similar to the observation that fire suppression and other human-caused disturbances in dry, ponderosa pine forests in the Southwest of the United States has unnaturally increased forest density. Historically, mixed-severity fires likely burned through these forests every decade or so, burning understory plants, small trees, and downed logs at low-severity, and patches of trees at high-severity. However, chaparral has

2945-619: Is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty , of which Chile is a signatory. It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands , more than 600 km (370 mi) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are

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3040-638: Is under threat by human activity. The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion , of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome , has three sub-ecoregions with ecosystem – plant community subdivisions: For the numerous individual plant and animal species found within the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, see: Some of the indicator plants of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include: Chaparral soils and nutrient composition Chaparral characteristically

3135-746: Is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands. However, according to recent studies, California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire and continues to maintain productive growth throughout pre-fire conditions. Seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate (e.g., scrub oak, Quercus berberidifolia ; toyon, Heteromeles arbutifolia ; and holly-leafed cherry, Prunus ilicifolia ). When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and

3230-405: Is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as part of its territory ( Chilean Antarctic Territory ). However, this latter claim

3325-546: The Chilean Antarctic Territory . The capital and largest city of Chile is Santiago , and the national language is Spanish . Spain conquered and colonized the region in the mid-16th century, replacing Inca rule , but failed to conquer the independent Mapuche people who inhabited what is now south-central Chile. Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818 declaration of independence from Spain . During

3420-580: The Colorado Desert (western Sonoran Desert ) from lower coastal Southern California . It is distinguished from the cismontane chaparral found on the coastal side of the mountains, which experiences higher winter rainfall. Naturally, desert chaparral experiences less winter rainfall than cismontane chaparral. Plants in this community are characterized by small, hard ( sclerophyllic ) evergreen (non- deciduous ) leaves. Desert chaparral grows above California's desert cactus scrub plant community and below

3515-754: The Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and the Pacific Alliance , and joined the OECD in 2010. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile . According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales , the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua Chili by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief ( cacique ) called Tili , who ruled

3610-512: The Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos . A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy , even if

3705-660: The Pacific Ocean . Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi), sharing borders with Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández , Isla Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island , and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as

3800-598: The Peninsular Ranges and California Coast Ranges , and south-southwest slopes of the Transverse Ranges in the Central Coast and Southern California regions. In Central and Southern California chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include: The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports

3895-483: The Spanish word chaparro , which translates to "place of the scrub oak ". In its natural state, chaparral is characterized by infrequent fires, with natural fire return intervals ranging between 30 years and over 150 years. Mature chaparral (at least 60 years since time of last fire) is characterized by nearly impenetrable, dense thickets (except the more open desert chaparral). These plants are flammable during

Potrero Hills (Richmond, California) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3990-640: The constitutional referendum , which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention . On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum , written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council . A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains , Chile stretches over 4,300 km (2,670 mi) north to south, but only 350 km (217 mi) at its widest point east to west and 64 km (40 mi) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175 km (109 mi). This encompasses

4085-557: The pinyon-juniper woodland . It is further distinguished from the deciduous sub-alpine scrub above the pinyon-juniper woodlands on the same side of the Peninsular ranges. Due to the lower annual rainfall (resulting in slower plant growth rates) when compared to cismontane chaparral, desert chaparral is more vulnerable to biodiversity loss and the invasion of non-native weeds and grasses if disturbed by human activity and frequent fire. Transmontane (desert) chaparral typically grows on

4180-650: The "men of Chilli". Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile , after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile". Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what

4275-427: The 1960s and 1970s, the country was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende 's democratically elected left-wing government . This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet , which resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances . The regime ended in 1990, following

4370-592: The 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth, putting an end to Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process of democratization and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization , while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy . During

4465-547: The December 2017 presidential election . On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 M w earthquake , the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami ) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$ 15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product. Chile achieved global recognition for

4560-827: The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government. In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile. The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks. Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate

4655-704: The Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river . In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan ) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what

4750-533: The Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year). After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera , soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to

4845-717: The War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere. In 1902 Chile and Argentina received

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4940-688: The area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili . Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls'; from the Mapuche word chilli , which may mean 'where

5035-470: The armed forces bombarded the presidential palace , Allende apparently committed suicide. After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup. In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people". A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet , took control of

5130-657: The associated soft-leaved, drought-deciduous , scrub community of coastal sage scrub , found often on drier, southern facing slopes. Three other closely related chaparral shrubland systems occur in southern Arizona , western Texas , and along the eastern side of central Mexico's mountain chains, all having summer rains in contrast to the Mediterranean climate of other chaparral formations. Chaparral comprises 9% of California's wildland vegetation and contains 20% of its plant species. See US Forest Service map and details of distribution and occurrence The name comes from

5225-626: The banking sector was nationalized . Many enterprises within the copper , coal, iron, nitrate , and steel industries were expropriated , nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests, replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality", nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy, and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR. Started under former President Frei,

5320-555: The candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación , received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle , the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle

5415-400: The chemicals from smoke or charred wood). During the time shortly after a fire, chaparral communities may contain soft-leaved herbaceous, fire following annual wildflowers and short-lived perennials that dominate the community for the first few years – until the burl resprouts and seedlings of chaparral shrub species create a mature, dense overstory. Seeds of annuals and shrubs lie dormant until

5510-547: The cismontane chaparral and the transmontane (desert) chaparral. Cismontane chaparral ("this side of the mountain") refers to the chaparral ecosystem in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome in California, growing on the western (and coastal) sides of large mountain range systems, such as the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the San Joaquin Valley foothills, western slopes of

5605-576: The city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire . Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and

5700-425: The coastal plain to promote plant species for textiles and food. Before a major fire, typical chaparral plant communities are dominated by manzanita , chamise Adenostoma fasciculatum and Ceanothus species, toyon (which can sometimes be interspersed with scrub oaks ), and other drought-resistant shrubs with hard ( sclerophyllous ) leaves; these plants resprout (see resprouter ) from underground burls after

5795-512: The colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake 's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru . The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that

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5890-419: The command of John Williams Wilson , the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843 , while the Antofagasta Region , at the time in dispute with Bolivia , began to fill with people. After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from

5985-408: The country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842 . As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined

6080-582: The country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua , guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba , Eastern Europe and Northern Africa. In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech , and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward

6175-446: The country. The years of the regime were marked by human rights violations . Chile actively participated in Operation Condor . In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death . According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission , at least 2,115 were killed, and at least 27,265 were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old). In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing

6270-520: The destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference. Cut off to

6365-415: The discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under

6460-405: The end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the " Popular Unity " coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action), achieved a partial majority in

6555-420: The essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church . A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in

6650-419: The first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación , for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office. Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning

6745-484: The hills once were cultivated as a vineyard for the Winehaven Winery , world's largest winery at the time. The range hosts two peaks the largest is a 494-feet (151 m) and the second largest a 328 feet (100 m) peak, both are unnamed. The hills once formed the backbone of an island the existed off the coast of what is now central Richmond and has been landfilled, similar to Alameda 's Bay Farm Island . The hills are made of shale , sandstone , and chert . The hills provide

6840-630: The interior of the deserts, such as in the upper New York Mountains within the Mojave National Preserve in the Mojave Desert. The California transmontane (desert) chaparral is found in the rain shadow deserts of the following: There is overlap of animals with those of the adjacent desert and pinyon-juniper communities. Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The chaparral area receives about 38–100 cm (15–39 in) of precipitation

6935-628: The land ends'" or from the Quechua chiri , 'cold', or tchili , meaning either 'snow' or "the deepest point of the Earth". Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile . The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro 's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves

7030-419: The late summer and autumn months when conditions are characteristically hot and dry. They grow as woody shrubs with thick, leathery, and often small leaves, contain green leaves all year (are evergreen ), and are typically drought resistant (with some exceptions ). After the first rains following a fire, the landscape is dominated by small flowering herbaceous plants, known as fire followers, which die back with

7125-431: The loss of obligate seeding shrub species such as Manzanita spp. This high frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. If high frequency fires continue over time, obligate resprouting shrub species can also be eliminated by exhausting their energy reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from

7220-586: The lower (3,500–4,500 feet (1,100–1,400 m) elevation) northern slopes of the southern Transverse Ranges (running east to west in San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties) and on the lower (2,500–3,500 feet (760–1,070 m)) eastern slopes of the Peninsular Ranges (running south to north from lower Baja California to Riverside and Orange counties and the Transverse Ranges). It can also be found in higher-elevation sky islands in

7315-549: The next fire creates the conditions needed for germination. Several shrub species such as Ceanothus fix nitrogen, increasing the availability of nitrogen compounds in the soil. Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the California summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of

7410-675: The north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison , the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch . Buccaneers and pirates menaced

7505-433: The overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities : the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However,

7600-402: The population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent , 7.9% mestizos , 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé , conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of

7695-461: The positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger. In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain . A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within

7790-558: The result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown . In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved. In 1904 Chile and Bolivia signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries. The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy . By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect

7885-482: The small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix . These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates . The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area

7980-546: The stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870. On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena

8075-535: The successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 meters (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over

8170-758: The summer dry period. Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as maquis ), central Chile (where it is called matorral ), the South African Cape Region (known there as fynbos ), and in Western and Southern Australia (as kwongan ). According to the California Academy of Sciences, Mediterranean shrubland contains more than 20 percent of

8265-465: The system is typically replaced by non-native, invasive, weedy grassland. The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980s by comparing wildfires in Baja California and southern California. It was suggested that fire suppression activities in southern California allowed more fuel to accumulate, which in turn led to larger fires. This

8360-448: The total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018. At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below). A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of

8455-517: The triple minister Diego Portales . Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859 . Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía . The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made

8550-425: The very large wildfires are caused by human activity during periods of hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds . These human-caused fires are commonly ignited by power line failures, vehicle fires and collisions, sparks from machinery, arson, or campfires. Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be eliminated by frequent fires. A high frequency of fire (less than 10-15 years apart) will result in

8645-407: The world's plant diversity. The word chaparral is a loanword from Spanish chaparro , meaning place of the scrub oak , which itself comes from a Basque word, txapar , that has the same meaning. Conservation International and other conservation organizations consider chaparral to be a biodiversity hotspot – a biological community with a large number of different species – that

8740-524: Was a de facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America). By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule

8835-632: Was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated

8930-668: Was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos , who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile . In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria , of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera , of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years. In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as

9025-536: Was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile. The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established

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