86-770: Arkansas The Battle of Poison Spring , also known as the Poison Spring massacre , was fought in Ouachita County, Arkansas , on April 18, 1864, as part of the Camden Expedition , during the American Civil War . A Union force commanded by Major General Frederick Steele had moved from Little Rock, Arkansas , in support of Major General Nathaniel Banks 's movement along the Red River towards Shreveport, Louisiana . Steele's objective
172-445: A pontoon bridge . Smith's Confederates arrived at Jenkins' Ferry on April 30 and repeatedly attacked the retreating Federals in windy and rainy conditions. Steele repulsed the attacks and finally crossed with what was left of his force, destroying the bridge to prevent Smith from following. He was compelled to abandon most of his remaining supply wagons in the swamp north of the river. A badly chagrined Steele finally reached his base at
258-527: A pontoon bridge . The wagons crossed slowly. The next day, Smith attacked Steele's rearguard, in what became the Battle of Jenkins' Ferry . Smith's assaults were repulsed, and Steele's men were able to escape across the Saline River. Men of the 2nd Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment , in response to the massacre at Poison Spring, executed several prisoners captured from Ruffner's Missouri Battery , and cut
344-506: A 1,200-man foraging party to gather corn that the Confederates had stored about twenty miles away. After loading the corn into over 200 wagons and proceeding about 5 miles on April 18, Col. James M. Williams 's party was savagely attacked by Marmaduke's and Brig. Gen. Samuel B. Maxey 's Confederates at the Poison Spring . Williams was forced to retreat northward into a marsh, where his men finally regrouped and fell back to Camden, minus
430-453: A blocking position, with Maxey's division preparing to assault the Union right flank . Fagan chose not to accompany the action, and the two brigades from his division operated under the command of Cabell. Marmaduke's men probed westwards, and occupied a hill. Hughey's Arkansas Battery was deployed on the hill, with Cabell's to the left and Crawford's to the right. Greene's brigade was held as
516-563: A cost, however. Resources might have been used more effectively against Porter and Banks while the Union fleet was delayed due to low water on the Red River. Instead, Porter's fleet was able to escape nearly intact. Nine nationally significant historic places in Clark , Cleveland , Grant , Hempstead , Nevada , Ouachita , and Pulaski counties, where events of the Union army's disastrous Camden Expedition occurred, are individually listed on
602-491: A decade to a time known as Bleeding Kansas . The Washington Telegraph , at that point the leading pro-Confederate newspaper in the state, praised the Confederate leaders and soldiers in the battle, with only one reference to the massacre in a story about using dead soldiers as grave markers under the heading "Choctaw Humor". The paper's editor, John R. Eakin , later published an editorial regarding Confederate response to
688-497: A partisan unit (the 43rd Battalion ) that was very effective in tying down Union forces behind their lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war. Groups such as Blazer's Scouts , White's Comanches , the Loudoun Rangers , McNeill's Rangers , and other similar forces at times served in the formal armies, but they often were loosely organized and operated more as partisans than as cavalry , especially early in
774-456: A pro-Union government in Louisiana ) and economic goals (the capture of Confederate cotton). Major General Nathaniel P. Banks led the army forces, and Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter was in charge of naval operations. To support this movement, Union troops commanded by Major General Frederick Steele were tasked with moving south from Little Rock to Shreveport, in what became known as
860-519: A relief column sent by Thayer. This consisted of 386 men from the 18th Iowa Infantry Regiment , 95 cavalrymen from the same units that Williams's cavalry contingent was drawn from, and two 12-pounder mountain howitzers manned by men of the 6th Kansas Cavalry. In total, the Union force now numbered 1,169 men, although many were straggling to engage in looting. Heavy fatigue was another cause of straggling, and Williams estimated that he had at most 1,000 men effective for combat. Confederate scouts learned of
946-479: A reserve. Most of Cabell and Crawford's men were dismounted. One regiment of Cabell's, the 2nd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment , was held in a position 2 miles (3.2 km) to the east to watch for Union troops arriving from Camden. Harris's Missouri Battery supported Crawford. The success of the operation depended on Maxey's men arriving on time for their part of the attack; Marmaduke's position was also at risk of further Union troops sallying forth from Camden and striking
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#17327808924801032-476: A ridgeline. A ravine cut through the field and would provide cover to Confederate troops attacking from that direction. For about half an hour after Marmaduke set the roadblock Union troops probed and skirmished with the line. At about 10:00, Maxey's troops arrived. After the troops arrived, Maxey met with Marmaduke and accepted Marmaduke's plan of action. Maxey ordered his two brigades, commanded by Colonels Charles DeMorse and Tandy Walker, to dismount and advance up
1118-478: A scout of Banks's defeat. Smith transferred three divisions of infantry from Louisiana to fight against Steele; the Confederate infantrymen crossed the Red River on April 15 and 16. Steele decided to abandon Camden, and his men left the city on April 26. On April 29, the vanguard of Steele's force reached the Saline River at Jenkins' Ferry. The area was inundated by heavy rains, and the Union troops had to build
1204-441: A single county to take up arms against their counterparts in the rest of the vicinity. Bushwhacking, murder, assault, and terrorism were characteristics of this kind of fighting. Few participants wore uniforms or were formally mustered into the actual armies. In many cases, civilians fought against civilians or civilians fought against opposing enemy troops. Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembled commando operations of
1290-431: A small guard force. Clayton divided his forces and sent part to establish a blocking position to the west near Marks Mill. One hundred picked men under Lieutenants Greathouse and Young were then dispatched to destroy the Confederate pontoon bridge at Longview. On March 29, the lieutenants surprised and captured approximately 250 soldiers belonging to Brig. Gen. Thomas P. Dockery 's brigade at Longview. Confederate forces in
1376-544: Is located 12 miles (19 km) from Camden, Arkansas and includes 84 acres of the battlefield. The Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark, which includes the Poison Spring battleground as well as other sites related to Steele's campaign, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. Camden Expedition Arkansas The Camden Expedition (March 23 – May 3, 1864)
1462-675: Is part of the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark , preserves a portion of the site of the battle. By early 1864, it was unlikely that the Confederacy would win the American Civil War against the Union and the Confederate situation in Arkansas was particularly bad. Union forces had captured the state capital of Little Rock , and had at least nominal control over all of
1548-497: The 1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment . Williams was informed by Thayer that forage was reportedly plentiful in the area around White Oak Creek. The 1st Kansas Colored was a unit of African-American soldiers , most of whom were formerly enslaved in Arkansas and Missouri . Most Confederate soldiers strongly resented the use of African-American troops, viewing it as a form of servile insurrection. Also, most Confederates did not view
1634-526: The Camden Expedition . Steele objected to his portion of the campaign due to the poor state of the road network of the region his men would have to march through, as well as the lack of food in the region. He was also worried about guerrilla warfare and his supply line. The Camden Expedition involved two Union forces beginning the campaign independently and joining during the march: Steele started from Little Rock, while Brigadier General John M. Thayer left Fort Smith, Arkansas . The Confederate troops opposing
1720-572: The Little Missouri as it moved toward Washington. As a supporting effort, to help fix Confederate forces at Monticello, Arkansas , prevent them from opposing Steele's march to Camden, Arkansas , Col. Powell Clayton conducted a raid on Longview, Arkansas, a port on the Saline , southwest of Monticello. Clayton's cavalry force crossed the Saline at Mount Elba, Arkansas, after sweeping aside
1806-476: The Little Rock Arsenal on March 23, 1864, with the objective of joining forces with Maj. Gen. Banks at Shreveport . Confederate forces in Arkansas were directed from Washington , where the Confederate government of the state relocated after the fall of Little Rock . Confederate Maj. Gen. Sterling Price ordered Brig. Gen. John S. Marmaduke to harry the Union column and to prevent it from crossing
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#17327808924801892-545: The U.S. National Register of Historic Places . They were collectively designated a national historic landmark on April 19, 1994. Guerrilla warfare in the American Civil War Guerrilla warfare was waged during the American Civil War (1861–1865) by both sides of the conflict, but most notoriously by the Confederacy. It gathered in intensity as the war dragged. Guerrilla warfare in
1978-532: The 18th Iowa, the Iowa soldiers were swamped by fleeing Kansans and charging Confederates. The Iowans were supported by the Union artillery. The 18th Iowa, supported by fragments of the 1st Kansas Colored, conducted a fighting withdrawal, making stands at successive ridgelines north of the road. Walker's Confederates looted the wagon train instead of fighting the Iowans. The Union troops abandoned their cannons when terrain
2064-475: The 1st Kansas Colored on either side of the road. The men of the relief column made up the line west of the wagons. The commander of the relief column, Captain William M. Duncan, was ordered to watch for a Confederate attempt to outflank the Union right. Maxey's artillery component, Krumbhaar's Texas Battery , had been unable to position itself on the ridgeline in time to support the attack due to difficulty moving
2150-416: The 1st Kansas Colored was at the front of the column, with the men from the relief column to the rear. This arrangement kept the two forces distinct. Not long after the junction between the two forces, the Union soldiers encountered Confederate cavalrymen. As the relief column had skirmished with Confederate troops on its way from Camden, this was not immediately alarming. By 9:30 am, Marmaduke had his troops in
2236-472: The 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act , passed by the Confederate Congress , authorized the formation of such units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category from the common 'bushwhacker' or 'guerrilla'. John Singleton Mosby formed
2322-419: The 2nd Arkansas Cavalry east of the battlefield, while others forced a civilian at gunpoint to guide them back to Camden away from the Confederates. The Confederates captured 170 wagons (the others had been burnt), 1,200 mules, and the four Union cannons. As well as food, the Confederates found the captured wagons contained clothes, tools, and household furnishings. Williams's force suffered 301 casualties during
2408-587: The African-American troops as parties to the rules of war . Confederate Lieutenant General E. Kirby Smith , the commander of the Trans-Mississippi Department , had earlier stated that his officers should give " no quarter to armed negroes and their officers". The Confederates had a special dislike for Kansas troops in general, as the soldiers from that state had a reputation for excessive pillaging and destruction. Early on
2494-511: The American Civil War followed the same general patterns of irregular warfare conducted in 19th century Europe . Structurally, they can be divided into three different types of operations: the so-called 'people's war', 'partisan warfare', and 'raiding warfare'. Each had distinct characteristics that were common practice during the war. The concept of a 'people's war,' first described by Clausewitz in his classic treatise On War ,
2580-653: The Army of Tennessee. Morgan led raids into Kentucky as well. In his last raid, he violated orders by going across the Ohio River and raiding in Ohio and Indiana as well since he wanted to bring the war to the North. The long raid diverted thousands of Union troops. Morgan captured and paroled nearly 6,000 troops, destroyed bridges and fortifications, and ran off livestock. By mid-1863, Morgan's Raiders had been mostly destroyed in
2666-774: The Camden Expedition as the "greatest Federal military disaster of the Civil War in Arkansas". The site of the battlefield is preserved within Poison Springs Battleground State Park , which is part of the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark . Writing in 2000, Urwin noted that the Arkansas Department of Parks and Tourism, which managed the park at the time, "tended to ignore the dark deeds that stained that particular patch of hallowed ground". The state park
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2752-410: The Camden Expedition were led by Major General Sterling Price . Price's infantry had been transferred to Louisiana to face Banks's advance, leaving him with only 3,200 cavalrymen. Steele left Little Rock on March 23, and reached Arkadelphia on March 29. He was supposed to join forces with Thayer there, but Thayer's column was delayed and Steele continued forward on April 1. After learning that Camden
2838-411: The Confederates. Another regiment, known as Thomas' Legion , had white and anti-Union Cherokee Indians, morphed into a guerrilla force and continued fighting in the remote mountain back-country of western North Carolina for a month after Robert E. Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House . That unit was never completely suppressed by Union forces, but it voluntarily ceased hostilities after capturing
2924-487: The Iowa unit before the third Confederate attack struck. This attack was better coordinated than the prior Confederate attempts. DeMorse's men pressured the portion of the 1st Iowa facing south, while Greene and Cabell drove west. Crawford's brigade was able to outflank the portion of the 1st Kansas Colored that was facing east, and the Kansans began to give way. While the left of the 1st Kansas Colored fell back, Cabell struck
3010-584: The Little Rock Arsenal on May 3. The Camden Expedition was perhaps the greatest Federal military disaster in Arkansas throughout the war. Union forces suffered over 2,500 casualties, lost hundreds of wagons and failed to take Shreveport or Texas. Confederate forces freely roamed rural Arkansas, while the Federals stayed in their fortifications at Fort Smith , Pine Bluff, Helena , and Little Rock. Confederate success in Arkansas did not come without
3096-434: The Poison Spring massacre. Wounded African-American troops were shot on the ground, and others were killed while trying to surrender. Maxey's men were seen bayonetting the wounded. The Confederate leaders did not reference the massacre in their official reports, but hinted at the slaughter. Cabell wrote "The number of killed of the enemy was very great, especially among the negroes". Walker stated that his men were motivated by
3182-558: The Union defeat, complicating matters for Steele. Union rations had to be reduced to one quarter of the normal amount due to lack of food. Price's cavalry hovered around Camden, unwilling to directly attack due to the disparity in numerical strength but lying in wait of any patrols or foraging parties sent from the Union command. The Confederate force consisted of three understrength cavalry divisions, which were commanded by Brigadier Generals John S. Marmaduke , James F. Fagan , and Samuel B. Maxey . Maxey's division numbered about 1,500 men, and
3268-406: The Union foraging party on the morning of April 17. One of Marmaduke's brigade commanders, Colonel Colton Greene , sent the 3rd Missouri Cavalry Regiment to investigate. Marmaduke requested reinforcements from Fagan, who sent Brigadier General William L. Cabell 's brigade. When the relief column left Camden, it was sighted by Confederate scouts, who overestimated its strength. Marmaduke believed he
3354-472: The Union forces as they were trying to cross the river. The Federals were able to fend off both of these attacks and then cross the river. The outnumbered Confederates were forced to withdraw, and Maj. Gen. Price established a defensive position, lightly fortified by earthworks, on the road between Elkin's Ferry and Washington at the western edge of the sparsely-populated Prairie d'Ane, a roughly circular area of prairie surrounded by woodlands. After waiting for
3440-632: The Union troops reached the White Oak Creek area. About half of the corn had already been destroyed by the Confederates when the Union soldiers arrived. The corn was scattered in small amounts at farms in the area, necessitating wide patrols by Williams's command. As well as the corn, clothing and other belongings were looted from civilian residences in the area. On April 18, the Union column began its return to Camden. The captured materials were loaded into 141 wagons. That morning, 4 miles (6.4 km) east of White Oak Creek, Williams's men were joined by
3526-443: The Union troops, but the historian Thomas A. DeBlack notes that this does not explain why the Confederates only behaved in this fashion towards the 1st Kansas Colored, and not the white units in the foraging party. Urwin suggests that the primary looting was done by the white Kansas cavalrymen, not the men of the 1st Kansas Colored. He also describes the massacre as the "worst war crime ever committed on Arkansas soil", and concludes that
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3612-410: The Union's use of African-American soldiers stating that "we cannot treat Negroes taken in arms as prisoners of war" and that "our soldiers are not bound to receive their surrender"; an article published by the journal American Journalism in 2005 suggests that Eakin was rationalizing the massacre at Poison Spring. The Fort Smith New Era , a significant pro-Union newspaper, in turn reported accounts of
3698-475: The action. The 1st Kansas Colored alone lost 182 men of whom 117 were killed and 65 wounded; it was unusual during the war for units to have more men killed than wounded. Three companies lost all of their officers. In comparison, Confederate losses were reported at 114 men killed, wounded, or missing, although records are incomplete; the historian Mark K. Christ states that a complete tabulation of Confederate losses would likely be fewer than 145. Cabell's men suffered
3784-472: The area remained usable; Steele sent part of the 36th Iowa Infantry Regiment to operate it on April 17. On April 16, Steele learned that 5,000 bushels of corn were located about 15 miles (24 km) from Camden, on the road to Washington. Steele tasked his quartermaster, Captain Charles A. Henry, with capturing the cache. Command of the foraging expedition went to Colonel James M. Williams , commander of
3870-404: The area were now alerted to the presence of Clayton's raiders in the area and attempted to cut off Clayton's command by attacking their bridgehead at Mount Elba on March 30, 1864. Clayton was successful in re-crossing the Saline, defeating Confederate forces at the Battle of Mount Elba and returned to Pine Bluff, Arkansas , with over 260 prisoners. The first Union actions of the Union expedition
3956-447: The arrival of reinforcements, Maj. Gen. Steele advanced on April 9, but was stopped at Prairie D'Ane , a series of encounters that ended on April 12. Price's Confederates returned to Prairie D'Ane on April 13, falling upon Steele's rearguard under Thayer. After a four-hour battle, Price disengaged, and Steele's column continued to Camden. Steele made a feint toward Washington, but then withdrew to Camden, in order to resupply his army, which
4042-400: The back side of the ridge that bordered the field. DeMorse's men were Texans, and Walker's were Choctaws. DeMorse's men came under Union fire when they reached the crest of the ridge. DeMorse's men were ordered to shift west, which forced Walker's brigade to move as well; this caused delays. While this was occurring, the Confederates were reinforced by the 14th Missouri Cavalry Battalion , which
4128-497: The battle. The defeat at Poison Spring and another defeat at the Battle of Marks' Mills a week later led Steele to retreat to Little Rock. In the April 30 Battle of Jenkins' Ferry , men from the 2nd Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment murdered Confederate soldiers in revenge of the massacre at Poison Spring. Poison Spring has been referred to as the worst massacre in the history of Arkansas. Poison Springs Battleground State Park , which
4214-459: The feint, and moved his troops from Camden to the Prairie D'Ane area . There, he was reinforced by two more cavalry brigades – one of Texas troops and the other of Choctaws . On April 9, Thayer's column joined Steele's; protracted skirmishing between the two sides occurred over the next few days in the Battle of Prairie D'Ane . The combined Union force started towards Camden on April 12, reaching
4300-442: The fire. Williams became aware of the presence of Maxey's men and redeployed his lines. Four companies of the 1st Kansas Colored and one James rifle continued to face east, while four more companies and the other James rifle turned to face south; the other two companies of the regiment were held in reserve. About 100 men from the 2nd and 6th Kansas Cavalry probed Maxey's line, and the relief column turned to face south. The cavalry probe
4386-421: The foraging party. Marmaduke's men formed a roadblock east along the way back to Camden, while Maxey's men attacked from south of the road. The first two Confederate attacks were unsuccessful, but the third broke the Union line. Williams's command was routed, losing its wagon train and four cannons. African-American soldiers from the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment were massacred and mutilated during and after
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#17327808924804472-409: The ground from the waist up as a headstone and another half-buried upside down as a footstone . Union soldiers who visited the battlefield several days later to bury the dead found three Union officers scalped, naked, and face down surrounded by an arranged circle of dead African Americans. Some Confederates, including DeMorse, suggested that the brutality was a result of outrage at the looting done by
4558-429: The guns through vegetation on the ridge. While Maxey moved his men into position, Marmaduke opened fire with his two artillery batteries. Between Marmaduke's artillery and Krumbhaar's battery, the Confederates had 12 cannon, which were positioned to bring crossfire on the Union lines, in a barrage that last for about half an hour. The Confederate artillery fire caused few casualties, as the Union troops lay down to avoid
4644-402: The highest overall Confederate casualties, but as a percentage of strength, Maxey's losses were higher. The historian Gregory J. W. Urwin describes the aftermath of the battle as an "orgy of barbarism". Some of Cabell's men, when tasked with removing the wagons from the battlefield, made a game out of running over fallen African-American soldiers' heads with the wagons. The battle became known as
4730-578: The killings represented "an ongoing program of racial intimidation" to control the behavior of slaves, instead of random acts of violence. The historian Anne J. Bailey notes that some of the Texans may also have been motivated by revenge for being badly defeated by the 1st Kansas Colored in the Battle of Honey Springs and that the Missouri Confederates may have been motivated by a history of hatred between Missourians and Kansans that dated back
4816-588: The late days of the Great Raid of 1863 . Some of his followers continued under their own direction, such as Marcellus Jerome Clarke , who kept on with raids in Kentucky. The Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly because of the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union Army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during
4902-413: The massacre. On April 20, Steele's men received a supply train from Pine Bluff carrying 10 days' rations, but when the wagons went to return to Pine Bluff, they were captured and their escort destroyed in the Battle of Marks' Mills . Reports spread that the Confederates murdered African-American noncombatants at Marks' Mills; Urwin states that over 100 were likely killed. Steele had also been informed by
4988-414: The morning of April 17, Williams set out from Camden with 198 wagons. The wagon escort included 438 soldiers from the 1st Kansas Colored, as well as 195 cavalrymen taken from the 2nd Kansas Cavalry Regiment , 6th Kansas Cavalry Regiment , and 14th Kansas Cavalry Regiment , along with two 6-pounder James rifles from the 2nd Independent Battery Indiana Light Artillery . After an 18-mile (29 km) march,
5074-422: The other two divisions totaled about 3,200. A large amount of corn was stored on farms in the area surrounding Camden. While Confederate soldiers searched for and destroyed some of this corn, some made it into Union hands through foraging and Union-sympathizing civilians. A further 3,000 bushels of corn were captured when Union cavalry took the Confederate steamer Homer . Only one of the steam-powered gristmills in
5160-407: The regiment's left center. The Confederates drove the 1st Kansas Colored back through the wagon train, murdering many wounded Union soldiers on the field. The sight of their comrades being murdered caused part of the 1st Kansas Colored to flee to the rear. Williams decided to abandon the wagon train and focus on saving his remaining men. While part of the 1st Kansas Colored rallied to form a line with
5246-409: The roadblock in the rear. This position was 14 miles (23 km) west of Camden. Williams's men encountered the roadblock and reported it to their commander, who ordered the wagons to be positioned in a compact formation north of the road. Dense woods along the edge of the road would make it difficult to outflank the Confederate line; the ground south of the road was a cleared field that sloped uphill to
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#17327808924805332-468: The sounds of the battle would reach Camden and that Steele would send reinforcements. While the fighting was audible in Camden, Steele did not attempt to aid the foraging party, for reasons that are unknown. While trying to reach the 18th Iowa to order the regiment to be repositioned, Williams's horse was shot out from under him. While the Union commander was given a replacement mount, he was unable to redeploy
5418-568: The state north of the Arkansas River . The Confederate political and military authorities had fallen back into the southwestern portion of the state. In March, the Union Navy and Union Army began a joint operation along the Red River , known as the Red River campaign . Militarily, the campaign targeted Shreveport, Louisiana , to disperse Confederate forces within that region. The campaign also had political goals (the establishment of
5504-478: The thought of shedding "the blood of their despised enemy", and DeMorse's report included the statement that "few prisoners were brought in by my command". Walker's Choctaws participated the most in the atrocities. Claims circulated that the Choctaws scalped some of the dead, and a local Confederate newspaper reported that the Choctaws had buried a Union soldier with a dead African-American soldier sticking out of
5590-496: The throats of Confederate wounded lying on the field. The officers of the 2nd Kansas Colored had, after Poison Spring, sworn that "the regiment would take no prisoners as long as the Rebels continued to murder our men". Nine severely wounded men from the 2nd Kansas Colored were left behind along with other Union wounded after the battle and were later killed by the Confederates. Steele's men reached Little Rock on May 3. DeBlack describes
5676-450: The town of Waynesville, North Carolina , on May 10, 1865. In the late 20th century, several historians focused on the Confederate government's decision to not use guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, some in the Confederate administration advocated continuing the fight as a guerrilla conflict. Such efforts were opposed by Confederate generals such as Lee, who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were
5762-400: The town three days later. On April 8, Banks was defeated in the Battle of Mansfield . After further fighting at the Battle of Pleasant Hill the next day, Banks decided to break off his offensive and withdraw. At Camden, Steele had significant supply issues with a lack of food for both his men and pack animals. While he did not have official news of Banks's defeat, rumor had reached Camden of
5848-403: The two forces. Price ordered Maxey's division to support Marmaduke. Maxey held seniority over Marmaduke and would command the operation. The historian Michael J. Forsyth considers the decision to assign Maxey to the operation to be an example of Price's lack of attention to detail. Marmaduke made most of the decisions during the battle. Williams pushed his men further on the morning of April 18;
5934-645: The use of Arkansas Unionist forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the provost marshal 's military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those who were captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Union army developed an effective cavalry itself and reinforced that system by numerous blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets. However, Union attempts to defeat Mosby's Partisan Rangers fell short of success because of Mosby's use of very small units (10–15 men) that operated in areas that were considered to be friendly to
6020-448: The wagonloads of much needed corn. Steele was relieved on April 20 when a wagon train arrived from Pine Bluff with welcome supplies. One week later, the Battle of Marks' Mills resulted in the capture of 2,000 more of Steele's men and many more wagons. Steele decided to abandon Camden under the cover of darkness and retreated to Little Rock on April 26. Three days later, he reached the Saline River at Jenkins' Ferry and began constructing
6106-503: The war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A notable exception was the 1863 Grierson's Raid , which did much to set the stage for General Ulysses S. Grant 's victory during the Vicksburg Campaign . Counterinsurgency operations were successful in reducing the impact of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In Arkansas, Union forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. They included
6192-485: The war. Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered 'irregular' in nature. The "Partisan Brigades" of Nathan Bedford Forrest and John Hunt Morgan operated as part of the cavalry forces of the Confederate Army of Tennessee in 1862 and 1863. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of
6278-652: Was a complete success, but the rest of the expedition would not go as planned. Steele's route was through a thinly populated wilderness with little provisions. He hoped to occupy Camden, a port city on the Ouachita to re-supply. As all the bridges on the Little Missouri were impassable, the Union troops had to ford the muddy river. Steele's men reached Elkin's Ferry before the Confederates, but on April 3, they were attacked by Brig. Gen. Joseph O. Shelby 's cavalry. The following day, Marmaduke's cavalry also attacked
6364-431: Was also Shreveport, and his men occupied Camden, Arkansas . After Banks was defeated at the battles of Mansfield and Pleasant Hill , Steele was isolated in Arkansas . Short on supplies, Steele sent a detachment commanded by Colonel James M. Williams on April 17 to forage for 5,000 bushels of corn that were reported to be in the area. Confederate cavalry commanded by John S. Marmaduke and Samuel B. Maxey attacked
6450-441: Was fortified, Steele decided to feint towards Washington (the new Confederate state capital) to draw the Confederates out of Camden, which would allow the latter city to be taken easily. Due to lack of supplies, the Union troops had to subsist on half rations, and drinkable water was scarce in some areas due to guerrillas polluting wells with dead animals. Price's cavalry harassed Steele's advance. The Confederate commander fell for
6536-417: Was more passive. The flank of Walker's brigade was harassed by men from the 6th Kansas Cavalry, and Walker halted his men to deal with the threat. Maxey's attack was repulsed. Marmaduke's men began moving forward, but a gap formed between Cabell's brigade and Maxey's division. This gap was plugged with Greene's brigade. Williams sent the two reserve companies to the wing facing south. The James rifle facing south
6622-539: Was outnumbered by 2,500 men to 1,500. Learning that the Union column was camping for the night near White Oak Creek, Marmaduke formulated a plan to trap the Union soldiers in the morning. The plan, which was approved by Price, called for the brigades of Greene, Cabell, and Colonel William A. Crawford (another one of Fagan's brigade commanders) to form a roadblock 10 miles (16 km) west of Camden at Poison Spring. Additional Confederate troops were to gather 3 miles (5 km) west at Woodlawn, to trap Williams's command between
6708-686: Was part of a much larger effort to move simultaneously against Confederate forces in a number of theaters. Separate Union columns were to destroy the remaining Confederate troops in south Arkansas and northern Louisiana, then join for an all-out push into Texas, essentially ending the war in that region. The Arkansas phase of this Red River Campaign was entitled the Camden Expedition, an effort endorsed by Lieut. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant . The plan called for Maj. Gen. Frederick Steele 's force to march to Shreveport, Louisiana , where it would link up with an amphibious expedition led by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks and Rear Admiral David D. Porter , whose force
6794-471: Was positioned on Crawford's right flank. Altogether, the Confederates had 3,621 available for the fight. Williams had initially formed his men into two lines, one to the east of the wagons and the other to the west, both of which faced east. The eastern line was composed of the 1st Kansas Colored, the two James rifles, and some cavalry. The cavalry held the flanks, with the James rifles along the road and half of
6880-408: Was reached that the guns could not be moved over and continued for Camden via a circuitous route, pursued by the Confederates for 2.5 miles (4 km). Marmaduke wished to continue the pursuit further, but Maxey called it off. The latter officer was concerned that Union reinforcements would arrive from Camden and strike his men while they were scattered. Some of the Union troops ran into the position of
6966-401: Was repulsed and took up a position between the 1st Kansas Colored and the relief column; the force's commander was wounded in the attack. Maxey's men attacked the Union line. DeMorse's men fought the 1st Kansas Colored; the shooting occurred at a range within 100 yards (90 m). More than half of the crew of the James rifle facing south became casualties. Walker's attack against the 18th Iowa
7052-440: Was the closest example of a mass guerrilla movement in the 19th century. In general during the American Civil War, this type of irregular warfare was conducted in the hinterland of the border states ( Missouri , Arkansas , Tennessee , Kentucky , and northwestern Virginia / West Virginia ). It was marked by a vicious quality of neighbors fighting each other as other grudges got settled. It was frequent for residents of one part of
7138-527: Was the final campaign conducted by the Union Army in south Arkansas during the Civil War . The offensive was designed to cooperate with Major-General Nathaniel P. Banks ' movement against Shreveport . The U.S. War Department , under the direction of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , had developed a very strategic goal to reassert Union control over Arkansas, Louisiana , and Texas . This
7224-563: Was then on half-rations. Price had stripped Camden of personnel in order to defend Washington, and the Union forces occupied the city on April 15 against no significant opposition, but found no supplies awaiting him. After a two-day wait, Maj. Gen. Steele sent out foraging parties into the countryside and awaited news from Banks. However, Banks was in retreat, having been defeated at the Battle of Mansfield , and now more of Smith's forces were heading into Arkansas to intercept Steele. Dwindling supplies for his army at Camden forced Steele to send out
7310-524: Was to advance up the Red River Valley; once joined, the Union force was to strike into Texas . Steele would garrison Shreveport while Banks forged ahead into northeastern Texas. But the two pincers never converged, and Steele's columns suffered terrible losses in a series of battles with Confederate forces led by Maj. Gen. Sterling Price and Gen. E. Kirby Smith . Steele led a combined 8,500-man Union force of infantry, artillery and cavalry from
7396-532: Was withdrawn after most of its gun crew was shot or left to take cover, but a round of double-shotted canister from it halted Maxey's men long enough to prevent its capture. DeMorse and Greene fought the 1st Kansas Colored at close range, while Cabell's men drove in Union skirmishers to the east. The Union line held, and the Confederates again withdrew. After the repulse of the second Confederate attack, Williams's soldiers were running out of ammunition for both their small arms and artillery. Williams held out hope that
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