119-477: Pongamia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family, Fabaceae , native to eastern and tropical Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands. It is the sole species in genus Pongamia . It is often known by the synonym Millettia pinnata . Its common names include Indian beech , Karanja , and Pongame oiltree . Pongamia pinnata is a legume tree that grows to about 15–25 m (50–80 ft) in height with
238-548: A "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University. During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland ; Rudbeck had made
357-512: A black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained, but splits easily when sawn, thus relegating it to firewood , posts, and tool handles. The tree's deep taproot and drought tolerance makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes . Pongamia pinnata seeds generally contain oil (27-39%), protein (17-37%), starch (6-7%), crude fiber (5-7%), moisture (15-20%), and ash content (2-3%). Nearly half of
476-483: A catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes , which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants . Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and
595-475: A child's talents than develop them". Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717. Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler. He reached
714-659: A collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet , as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller . He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae . At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature , preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray . Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary . The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary
833-430: A copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica , a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It
952-559: A curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer. Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany
1071-575: A director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede . Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him
1190-538: A dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa , in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito ), he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua ( wormwood ) would become
1309-456: A family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl . Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina , was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia. In May 1741, Linnaeus
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#17327919806201428-456: A food source for cattle, sheep, and poultry, as its byproduct contains up to 30% protein. As adaptive uses are increasing, the tree is being planted in former citrus growing regions that have declined in Florida and California because of disease and climate change conditions. Fabaceae The Fabaceae ( / f ə ˈ b eɪ s i . iː , - ˌ aɪ / ) or Leguminosae , commonly known as
1547-424: A large canopy that spreads equally wide and creates dense shade. It may be deciduous for short periods. It has a straight or crooked trunk, 50–80 cm (20–30 in) in diameter, with grey-brown bark, which is smooth or vertically fissured. Its wood is white colored. Branches are glabrous with pale stipulate scars. The imparipinnate leaves of the tree alternate and are short-stalked, rounded, or cuneate at
1666-480: A naturalist." Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North". He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology . In botany, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name. In zoology, the abbreviation Linnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L., Linnæus and Linné are also used. In older publications,
1785-475: A new benefactor, Olof Celsius , who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden. In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction . This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at
1904-569: A number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system. Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius . He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though
2023-630: A physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin , who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science ; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots. Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support
2142-561: A practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora . The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described Flora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works. It
2261-837: A rhizobia species may often infect more than one host species. This means that one plant species may be infected by more than one species of bacteria. For example, nodules in Acacia senegal can contain seven species of rhizobia belonging to three different genera. The most distinctive characteristics that allow rhizobia to be distinguished apart are the rapidity of their growth and the type of root nodule that they form with their host. Root nodules can be classified as being either indeterminate, cylindrical and often branched, and determinate, spherical with prominent lenticels. Indeterminate nodules are characteristic of legumes from temperate climates, while determinate nodules are commonly found in species from tropical or subtropical climates. Nodule formation
2380-682: A short hypanthium , usually cup-shaped. There are normally ten stamens and one elongated superior ovary , with a curved style . They are usually arranged in indeterminate inflorescences . Fabaceae are typically entomophilous plants (i.e. they are pollinated by insects ), and the flowers are usually showy to attract pollinators . In the Caesalpinioideae , the flowers are often zygomorphic , as in Cercis , or nearly symmetrical with five equal petals, as in Bauhinia . The upper petal
2499-580: A small group of students to Dalarna . Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros . His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun , where Linnaeus
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#17327919806202618-462: A source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree. That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi , a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam , leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on
2737-430: A staple, essential as a source of protein. Their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen reduces fertilizer costs for farmers and gardeners who grow legumes, and means that legumes can be used in a crop rotation to replenish soil that has been depleted of nitrogen . Legume seeds and foliage have a comparatively higher protein content than non-legume materials, due to the additional nitrogen that legumes receive through
2856-568: A symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen (N 2 ) from the air is converted into ammonium (NH 4 , a form of nitrogen available to the plant). M. pinnata is also a freshwater flooded forest species, as it can survive total submergence in water for few months continuously. M. pinnata trees are common in Tonlesap lake swamp forests in Cambodia . P. pinnata is now broadly distributed across India, Asia, Africa, northern Australia, and
2975-452: A thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer ( prases ) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire . Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb
3094-736: A wide variety of growth forms , including trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and even vines or lianas . The herbaceous plants can be annuals, biennials , or perennials, without basal or terminal leaf aggregations. Many Legumes have tendrils. They are upright plants, epiphytes , or vines. The latter support themselves by means of shoots that twist around a support or through cauline or foliar tendrils . Plants can be heliophytes , mesophytes , or xerophytes . The leaves are usually alternate and compound. Most often they are even- or odd- pinnately compound (e.g. Caragana and Robinia respectively), often trifoliate (e.g. Trifolium , Medicago ) and rarely palmately compound (e.g. Lupinus ), in
3213-513: A wide variety of taxa representing the main lineages in the Fabaceae have been found in the fossil record dating from the middle to the late Eocene , suggesting that the majority of the modern Fabaceae groups were already present and that a broad diversification occurred during this period. Therefore, the Fabaceae started their diversification approximately 60 million years ago and the most important clades separated 50 million years ago. The age of
3332-567: Is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel . P. pinnata as a biofuel is commercially valuable to the rural populations of places such as India and Bangladesh, where the plant grows abundantly, because it can support the socioeconomic development of these areas. Several unelectrified villages have used pongamia oil , simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting. Research indicates potential use of P. pinnata as
3451-511: Is closely related to human evolution . The family Fabaceae includes a number of plants that are common in agriculture including Glycine max ( soybean ), Phaseolus (beans), Pisum sativum ( pea ), Cicer arietinum ( chickpeas ), Vicia faba ( broad bean ), Medicago sativa ( alfalfa ), Arachis hypogaea ( peanut ), Ceratonia siliqua (carob), Trigonella foenum-graecum ( fenugreek ), and Glycyrrhiza glabra ( liquorice ). A number of species are also weedy pests in different parts of
3570-523: Is common throughout the Fabaceae. It is found in the majority of its members that only form an association with rhizobia, which in turn form an exclusive symbiosis with the Fabaceae (with the exception of Parasponia , the only genus of the 18 Ulmaceae genera that is capable of forming nodules). Nodule formation is present in all the Fabaceae sub-families, although it is less common in the Caesalpinioideae. All types of nodule formation are present in
3689-503: Is defined by isoxazolin-5-one derivatives. These compounds occur in particular together with 3-NPA and related derivatives at the same time in the same species, as found in Astragalus canadensis and Astragalus collinus . 3-NPA and isoxazlin-5-one derivatives also occur in many species of leaf beetles (see defense in insects ). Legumes are economically and culturally important plants due to their extraordinary diversity and abundance,
Pongamia - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-599: Is naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia to north and northeastern Australia to some Pacific islands; It has been propagated and distributed farther around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea level to 1,360 m (Chingola, Zambia), although in the Himalayan foothills, it is not found above 600 m. Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0 °C (32 °F) and up to about 50 °C (122 °F) and annual rainfall of 500–2,500 mm (20–98 in),
3927-593: Is the innermost one, unlike in the Faboideae . Some species, like some in the genus Senna , have asymmetric flowers, with one of the lower petals larger than the opposing one, and the style bent to one side. The calyx, corolla, or stamens can be showy in this group. In the Mimosoideae , the flowers are actinomorphic and arranged in globose inflorescences. The petals are small and the stamens, which can be more than just 10, have long, coloured filaments, which are
4046-545: Is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and dry forests of the Americas and Africa. Recent molecular and morphological evidence supports the fact that the Fabaceae is a single monophyletic family. This conclusion has been supported not only by the degree of interrelation shown by different groups within the family compared with that found among the Leguminosae and their closest relations, but also by all
4165-450: The Beast of Revelation . Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg. Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk , a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted
4284-528: The Orchidaceae and Asteraceae , with about 765 genera and nearly 20,000 known species. The five largest genera of the family are Astragalus (over 3,000 species), Acacia (over 1,000 species), Indigofera (around 700 species), Crotalaria (around 700 species), and Mimosa (around 400 species), which constitute about a quarter of all legume species. The c. 19,000 known legume species amount to about 7% of flowering plant species. Fabaceae
4403-526: The Paleogene to become a ubiquitous part of the modern earth's biota , along with many other families belonging to the flowering plants. The Fabaceae have an abundant and diverse fossil record, especially for the Tertiary period. Fossils of flowers, fruit, leaves, wood and pollen from this period have been found in numerous locations. The earliest fossils that can be definitively assigned to
4522-672: The Pongamia species into Millettia . Subsequent studies revealed that Millettia pinnata was paraphyletic within Millettia , and the species was reclassified as Pongamia pinnata , the sole species in the revived genus Pongamia . Pongamia pinnata is well-adapted to arid zones, and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping as a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy and showy, fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants. The bark may be used to make twine or rope, and it also yields
4641-613: The Rosidae clade (as established by the gene molecular phylogeny of rbcL , a gene coding for part of the RuBisCO enzyme in the chloroplast ). This grouping indicates that the predisposition for forming nodules probably only arose once in flowering plants and that it can be considered as an ancestral characteristic that has been conserved or lost in certain lineages. However, such a wide distribution of families and genera within this lineage indicates that nodulation had multiple origins. Of
4760-580: The Tethys seaway during the Palaeogene Period. However, others contend that Africa (or even the Americas ) cannot yet be ruled out as the origin of the family. The current hypothesis about the evolution of the genes needed for nodulation is that they were recruited from other pathways after a polyploidy event. Several different pathways have been implicated as donating duplicated genes to
4879-495: The curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he
Pongamia - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-563: The flowers of one plant to others thereby ensuring pollination. Many Fabaceae species are important sources of pollen and nectar for bees, including for honey production in the beekeeping industry. Example Fabaceae such as alfalfa , and various clovers including white clover and sweet clover , are important sources of nectar and honey for the Western honey bee . Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné ,
5117-458: The fruit of these plants, which are called legumes . Fabaceae range in habit from giant trees (like Koompassia excelsa ) to small annual herbs , with the majority being herbaceous perennials. Plants have indeterminate inflorescences, which are sometimes reduced to a single flower. The flowers have a short hypanthium and a single carpel with a short gynophore , and after fertilization produce fruits that are legumes. The Fabaceae have
5236-399: The legume , pea , or bean family , are a large and agriculturally important family of flowering plants . It includes trees , shrubs , and perennial or annual herbaceous plants , which are easily recognized by their fruit ( legume ) and their compound, stipulate leaves. The family is widely distributed, and is the third-largest land plant family in number of species, behind only
5355-503: The 10 families within the Rosidae, 8 have nodules formed by actinomyces ( Betulaceae , Casuarinaceae , Coriariaceae , Datiscaceae , Elaeagnaceae , Myricaceae , Rhamnaceae and Rosaceae ), and the two remaining families, Ulmaceae and Fabaceae have nodules formed by rhizobia. The rhizobia and their hosts must be able to recognize each other for nodule formation to commence. Rhizobia are specific to particular host species although
5474-462: The Fabaceae appeared in the early Palaeocene (approximately 65 million years ago). Representatives of the 3 sub-families traditionally recognised as being members of the Fabaceae – Cesalpinioideae, Papilionoideae and Mimosoideae – as well as members of the large clades within these sub-families – such as the genistoides – have been found in periods later, starting between 55 and 50 million years ago. In fact,
5593-536: The Fabaceae. Forisome proteins are found in the sieve tubes of Fabaceae; uniquely they are not dependent on ADT . The order Fabales contains around 7.3% of eudicot species and the greatest part of this diversity is contained in just one of the four families that the order contains: Fabaceae. This clade also includes the families Polygalaceae , Surianaceae and Quillajaceae and its origins date back 94 to 89 million years, although it started its diversification 79 to 74 million years ago. The Fabaceae diversified during
5712-725: The Faboideae, even though diversification within each genus was relatively recent. For instance, Astragalus separated from the Oxytropis 16 to 12 million years ago. In addition, the separation of the aneuploid species of Neoastragalus started 4 million years ago. Inga , another genus of the Papilionoideae with approximately 350 species, seems to have diverged in the last 2 million years. It has been suggested, based on fossil and phylogenetic evidence, that legumes originally evolved in arid and/or semi-arid regions along
5831-577: The Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae commonly bipinnate (e.g. Acacia , Mimosa ). They always have stipules , which can be leaf-like (e.g. Pisum ), thorn-like (e.g. Robinia ) or be rather inconspicuous. Leaf margins are entire or, occasionally, serrate . Both the leaves and the leaflets often have wrinkled pulvini to permit nastic movements . In some species, leaflets have evolved into tendrils (e.g. Vicia ). Many species have leaves with structures that attract ants which protect
5950-698: The Pacific and Caribbean Islands and it has been cultivated and transported since the nineteenth century or earlier. As a result, some literature declares M. pinnata naturalized in Africa and certain parts of the United States, while its status as naturalized or native is uncertain in other regions. The species was first described as Cytisus pinnatus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. In 1898, Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre reclassified it as Pongamia pinnata . In 1984, Robert Geesink concluded that species of Pongamia and Millettia were easily confused, and consolidated
6069-578: The Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson , the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735). Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave , who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit
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#17327919806206188-558: The Swedish province of Västergötland . He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa , published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to
6307-490: The University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan
6426-534: The abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself. Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland , Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted
6545-583: The ability to take nitrogen gas (N 2 ) out of the air and convert it to a form of nitrogen that is usable to the host plant ( NO 3 or NH 3 ). This process is called nitrogen fixation . The legume, acting as a host, and rhizobia , acting as a provider of usable nitrate, form a symbiotic relationship. Members of the Phaseoleae genus Apios form tubers, which can be edible. The flowers often have five generally fused sepals and five free petals . They are generally hermaphroditic and have
6664-543: The age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis". Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek , Hebrew , theology and mathematics ,
6783-500: The apex (remaining free at the base), forming a boat-like structure called the keel. The stamens are always ten in number, and their filaments can be fused in various configurations, often in a group of nine stamens plus one separate stamen. Various genes in the CYCLOIDEA (CYC)/DICHOTOMA (DICH) family are expressed in the upper (also called dorsal or adaxial) petal; in some species, such as Cadia , these genes are expressed throughout
6902-534: The base, ovate or oblong along the length, obtuse-acuminate at the apex, and not toothed on the edges. They are a soft, shiny burgundy when young, and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses, with prominent veins underneath. Flowering generally starts after 3–4 years with small clusters of white, purple, and pink flowers blossoming throughout the year. The raceme -like inflorescences bear two to four flowers that are strongly fragrant and grow to be 15–18 mm (0.59–0.71 in) long. The calyx of
7021-429: The basic legume fruit. The Fabaceae are rarely cyanogenic . Where they are, the cyanogenic compounds are derived from tyrosine , phenylalanine or leucine . They frequently contain alkaloids . Proanthocyanidins can be present either as cyanidin or delphinidine or both at the same time. Flavonoids such as kaempferol , quercitin and myricetin are often present. Ellagic acid has never been found in any of
7140-442: The botanist Johannes Burman . After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus . Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica . In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III ,
7259-436: The chloroplast genes rbcL and matK , or the ribosomal spacers ITS ) and cladistic analysis in order to investigate the relationships between the family's different lineages. Fabaceae is consistently recovered as monophyletic . The studies further confirmed that the traditional subfamilies Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae were each monophyletic but both were nested within the paraphyletic subfamily Caesalpinioideae. All
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#17327919806207378-424: The class of organisms. Linnaeus published Species Plantarum , the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature , in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of
7497-409: The classification of fish. One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius , to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by
7616-560: The compound 3-nitropropanoic acid (3-NPA, beta-nitropropionic acid ). The free acid 3-NPA is an irreversible inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration , and thus the compound inhibits the tricarboxylic acid cycle . This inhibition caused by 3-NPA is especially toxic to nerve cells and represents a very general toxic mechanism suggesting a profound ecological importance due to the big number of species producing this compound and its derivatives. A second and closely related class of secondary metabolites that occur in many species of leguminous plants
7735-548: The different approaches yielded similar results regarding the relationships between the family's main clades. Following extensive discussion in the legume phylogenetics community, the Legume Phylogeny Working Group reclassified Fabaceae into six subfamilies, which necessitated the segregation of four new subfamilies from Caesalpinioideae and merging Caesapinioideae sensu stricto with the former subfamily Mimosoideae. The exact branching order of
7854-557: The different subfamilies is still unresolved. Polygalaceae ( outgroup ) Surianaceae (outgroup) Quillajaceae (outgroup) Cercidoideae Detarioideae Duparquetioideae Dialioideae Caesalpinioideae Faboideae The Fabaceae are placed in the order Fabales according to most taxonomic systems, including the APG III system . The family now includes six subfamilies: The Fabaceae have an essentially worldwide distribution, being found everywhere except Antarctica and
7973-440: The expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa , written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica , it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland. During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica . Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica
8092-411: The family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping ), and Emerentia Linnæa. His father taught him Latin as a small child. One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist , a Lutheran minister , and
8211-422: The first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he
8330-544: The flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden. During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published
8449-432: The flower, producing a radially symmetrical flower. The ovary most typically develops into a legume . A legume is a simple dry fruit that usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. A common name for this type of fruit is a "pod", although that can also be applied to a few other fruit types. A few species have evolved samarae , loments , follicles , indehiscent legumes, achenes , drupes , and berries from
8568-534: The flowers is bell-shaped and truncated, while the corolla is a rounded ovate shape with basal auricles and often with a central blotch of green color. Croppings of indehiscent pods can occur by 4–6 years. The brown seed pods appear immediately after flowering, and mature in 10 to 11 months. The pods are thick-walled, smooth, somewhat flattened, and elliptical, but slightly curved with a short, curved point. The pods contain within them one or two bean-like brownish-red seeds, but because they do not split open naturally,
8687-429: The genera or species analysed. Sugars are transported within the plants in the form of sucrose . C3 photosynthesis has been found in a wide variety of genera. The family has also evolved a unique chemistry. Many legumes contain toxic and indigestible substances, antinutrients , which may be removed through various processing methods. Pterocarpans are a class of molecules (derivatives of isoflavonoids ) found only in
8806-457: The high Arctic. The trees are often found in tropical regions, while the herbaceous plants and shrubs are predominant outside the tropics. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF, performed by the organisms called diazotrophs ) is a very old process that probably originated in the Archean eon when the primitive atmosphere lacked oxygen . It is only carried out by Euryarchaeota and just 6 of
8925-428: The infection thread development in that infection threads grow in a polar manner that is similar to a pollen tubes polar growth towards the ovules. Both pathways include the same type of enzymes, pectin-degrading cell wall enzymes. The enzymes needed to reduce nitrogen, nitrogenases, require a substantial input of ATP but at the same time are sensitive to free oxygen. To meet the requirements of this paradoxical situation,
9044-889: The journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people , reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey. Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia , later known as Linnaea borealis ,
9163-586: The kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu . After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden. When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun , where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa . Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as
9282-530: The last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden. He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium ) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine. By
9401-468: The main Cesalpinioideae clades have been estimated as between 56 and 34 million years and the basal group of the Mimosoideae as 44 ± 2.6 million years. The division between Mimosoideae and Faboideae is dated as occurring between 59 and 34 million years ago and the basal group of the Faboideae as 58.6 ± 0.2 million years ago. It has been possible to date the divergence of some of the groups within
9520-585: The more than 50 phyla of bacteria . Some of these lineages co-evolved together with the flowering plants establishing the molecular basis of a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship. BNF is carried out in nodules that are mainly located in the root cortex, although they are occasionally located in the stem as in Sesbania rostrata . The spermatophytes that co-evolved with actinorhizal diazotrophs ( Frankia ) or with rhizobia to establish their symbiotic relationship belong to 11 families contained within
9639-927: The oil content of P. pinnata seeds is oleic acid . Oil made from the seeds, known as pongamia oil , has been used as lamp oil , in soapmaking , and as a lubricant . The oil has a high content of triglycerides . Its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents, including karanjin , pongamol, tannin , and karanjachromene . These compounds induce nausea and vomiting if ingested in its natural form. The fruits, sprouts and seeds are used in traditional medicine . It can be grown in rainwater harvesting ponds up to 6 m (20 ft) in water depth without losing its greenery and remaining useful for biodiesel production. Studies have shown seedlings with tolerance to salinity levels between 12 and 19 dS/m, with an ability to tolerate salinity stresses of 32.5 dS/m. The seed oil has been found to be useful in diesel generators, and along with Jatropha and castor , it
9758-409: The pathways need for nodulation. The main donors to the pathway were the genes associated with the arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis genes, the pollen tube formation genes and the haemoglobin genes. One of the main genes shown to be shared between the arbuscular mycorrhiza pathway and the nodulation pathway is SYMRK and it is involved in the plant-bacterial recognition. The pollen tube growth is similar to
9877-459: The personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for
9996-431: The plant from herbivore insects (a form of mutualism ). Extrafloral nectaries are common among the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae, and are also found in some Faboideae (e.g. Vicia sativa ). In some Acacia , the modified hollow stipules are inhabited by ants and are known as domatia . Many Fabaceae host bacteria in their roots within structures called root nodules . These bacteria, known as rhizobia , have
10115-436: The plants express a type of haemoglobin called leghaemoglobin that is believed to be recruited after a duplication event. These three genetic pathways are believed to be part of a gene duplication event then recruited to work in nodulation. The phylogeny of the legumes has been the object of many studies by research groups from around the world. These studies have used morphology, DNA data (the chloroplast intron trnL ,
10234-450: The pods need to decompose before the seeds can germinate. The seeds are about 1.5–2.5 cm (0.59–0.98 in) long with a brittle, oily coat, and are unpalatable in natural form to herbivores. Pongamia pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a diploid chromosome number of 22. Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium Bradyrhizobium . The species
10353-858: The process. Legumes are commonly used as natural fertilizers. Some legume species perform hydraulic lift , which makes them ideal for intercropping . Farmed legumes can belong to numerous classes, including forage , grain , blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure and timber species, with most commercially farmed species filling two or more roles simultaneously. There are of two broad types of forage legumes. Some, like alfalfa , clover , vetch , and Arachis , are sown in pasture and grazed by livestock. Other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide fodder . Grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds , and are also called pulses . The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for
10472-656: The production of indigo , Acacia , for gum arabic , and Derris , for the insecticide action of rotenone , a compound it produces. Fallow or green manure legume species are cultivated to be tilled back into the soil to exploit the high nitrogen levels found in most legumes. Numerous legumes are farmed for this purpose, including Leucaena , Cyamopsis and Sesbania . Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species, Dalbergia species, and Castanospermum australe . Melliferous plants offer nectar to bees and other insects to encourage them to carry pollen from
10591-713: The production of oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include both herbaceous plants like beans , lentils , lupins , peas and peanuts , and trees such as carob , mesquite and tamarind . Lathyrus tuberosus , once extensively cultivated in Europe, forms tubers used for human consumption. Bloom legume species include species such as lupin , which are farmed commercially for their blooms, and thus are popular in gardens worldwide. Laburnum , Robinia , Gleditsia (honey locust), Acacia , Mimosa , and Delonix are ornamental trees and shrubs . Industrial farmed legumes include Indigofera , cultivated for
10710-461: The quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in Skånska Resa . In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in
10829-404: The recent phylogenetic studies based on DNA sequences. These studies confirm that the Fabaceae are a monophyletic group that is closely related to the families Polygalaceae , Surianaceae and Quillajaceae and that they belong to the order Fabales . Along with the cereals , some fruits and tropical roots, a number of Leguminosae have been a staple human food for millennia and their use
10948-425: The showiest part of the flower. All of the flowers in an inflorescence open at once. In the Faboideae , the flowers are zygomorphic, and have a specialized structure . The upper petal, called the banner or standard, is large and envelops the rest of the petals in bud, often reflexing when the flower blooms. The two adjacent petals, the wings, surround the two bottom petals. The two bottom petals are fused together at
11067-570: The southernmost province Scania . This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy. In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater , or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick —a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin . In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania , again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On
11186-577: The subfamily Papilionoideae: indeterminate (with the meristem retained), determinate (without meristem) and the type included in Aeschynomene . The latter two are thought to be the most modern and specialised type of nodule as they are only present in some lines of the subfamily Papilionoideae. Even though nodule formation is common in the two monophyletic subfamilies Papilionoideae and Mimosoideae they also contain species that do not form nodules. The presence or absence of nodule-forming species within
11305-654: The three sub-families indicates that nodule formation has arisen several times during the evolution of the Fabaceae and that this ability has been lost in some lineages. For example, within the genus Acacia , a member of the Mimosoideae, A. pentagona does not form nodules, while other species of the same genus readily form nodules, as is the case for Acacia senegal , which forms both rapidly and slow growing rhizobial nodules. A large number of species within many genera of leguminous plants, e.g. Astragalus , Coronilla , Hippocrepis , Indigofera , Lotus , Securigera and Scorpiurus , produce chemicals that derive from
11424-415: The tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone , and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water. The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight, and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation ,
11543-758: The twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens , the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer , a common and economically important animal in Lapland. Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia , making major inland incursions from Umeå , Luleå and Tornio . He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland
11662-636: The two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit ". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum , in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum , with another sixty ( sexaginta ) genera. His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus ,
11781-474: The two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg . Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met
11900-455: The use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests. In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on
12019-550: The way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa , where he remarked on
12138-476: The way, the pair stopped in Hamburg , where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra . Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake , cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent
12257-545: The wide variety of edible vegetables they represent and due to the variety of uses they can be put to: in horticulture and agriculture, as a food, for the compounds they contain that have medicinal uses and for the oil and fats they contain that have a variety of uses. The history of legumes is tied in closely with that of human civilization, appearing early in Asia , the Americas (the common bean , several varieties) and Europe (broad beans) by 6,000 BCE , where they became
12376-485: The world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles". His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored
12495-461: The world, including Cytisus scoparius (broom), Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust) , Ulex europaeus (gorse), Pueraria montana (kudzu), and a number of Lupinus species. The name 'Fabaceae' comes from the defunct genus Faba , now included in Vicia . The term "faba" comes from Latin, and appears to simply mean "bean". Leguminosae is an older name still considered valid, and refers to
12614-537: The æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications. Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus. Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman . Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish
12733-433: Was zoological . Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745. In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to
12852-739: Was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature , the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy ". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement , as Carolus a Linné . Linnaeus was the son of a curate and was born in Råshult , in the countryside of Småland , southern Sweden . He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published
12971-413: Was a region with limited biodiversity , Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica . However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system. In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in
13090-640: Was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant . In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Skåne . He was registered as Carolus Linnæus , the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications. Professor Kilian Stobæus , natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as
13209-441: Was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history , instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala. Ten days after he
13328-487: Was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from
13447-448: Was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds." In 1734, Linnaeus led
13566-572: Was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus , in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof". It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe. ) In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane,
13685-558: Was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund , he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead. This name was spelled with the æ ligature . When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with
13804-420: Was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza , I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly." Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become
13923-551: Was permitted to visit the mines. In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic , where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands , then a highly revered place to study natural history. On
14042-752: Was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils . He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica . He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden , Adonis Uplandicus . Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén , returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had
14161-414: Was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants. Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father
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