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48-493: The Swedish name of the islands Rågöarna means Rye Islands - historically rye was the primary crop grown on the island. Thus Stora Rågö and Lilla Rågö mean Big Rye Island and Small Rye Island , respectively. Alternative names for the two islands are Västra Rågö / Västerö and Östra Rågö / Österö ( West Island and East Island ). In terms of area Väike-Pakri ( Lesser Pakri ) is actually somewhat larger than Suur-Pakri ( Greater Pakri ). The reason for this contradiction

96-414: A biennial . Depending on environmental conditions and variety it reaches 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in height. Its leaves are blue-green, long, and pointed. The seeds are carried in a curved head or spike some 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8 to 5.9 in) long. The head is composed of many spikelets , each of which holds two small flowers; the spikelets alternate left and right up

144-582: A house paint in Sweden. Plant breeders, starting in the 19th century in Germany and Scotland, but mainly from the 1950s, worked to develop a hybrid cereal with the best qualities of wheat and rye, now called triticale . Modern triticales are hexaploid with six sets of chromosomes; they are used to produce millions of tons of cereal annually. Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity, which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example,

192-696: A risk factor for cardiovascular diseases . Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). Consuming breakfast cereals containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains glutens and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders , such as celiac disease , non-celiac gluten sensitivity , and wheat allergy , among others. Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley. Rye grain

240-504: A risk if food safety vigilance breaks down. After an absence of 60 years, stem rust ( Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici ) has returned to Europe in the 2020s. Areas affected include Germany , Russia ( Western Siberia ), Spain , and Sweden . Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, and eastwards into central and northern Russia. Rye

288-493: A variety of herbivorous insects can seriously affect plant health. Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus. Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in ergotism , which causes convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics. Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated ergotism, but it remains

336-608: Is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of essential nutrients , including dietary fiber , B vitamins , such as thiamine and niacin (each at 25% DV), and several dietary minerals . Highest micronutrient contents are for manganese (130% DV) and phosphorus (27% DV) (table). According to Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration , consuming at least 4 grams (0.14 oz) per day of rye beta-glucan or 0.65 grams (0.023 oz) per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol ,

384-735: Is also grown in North America, in South America including Argentina, in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), in Turkey, and in northern China. Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, as of 2022 ; for instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 metric tons in 1992 to 2.2 metric tons in 2022. World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016

432-619: Is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used as a cover crop to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds. Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy clay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. As for temperature,

480-529: Is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals, such as snakes, turtles, and frogs. The classical scholar Carl A. P. Ruck writes that the Roggenmutter was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into

528-457: Is easily stored and transported with limited spoilage, unlike other agricultural products. Healthy grain supply and trade is important to many societies, providing a caloric base for most food systems as well as important role in animal feed for animal agriculture . The grain trade is as old as agricultural settlement, identified in many of the early cultures that adopted sedentary farming. Major societal changes have been directly connected to

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576-536: Is of unknown origin but may derive from a Balkan language. The English name rye derives from Old English ryge , related to Dutch rogge , German Roggen , and Russian рожь rožʹ , again all with the same meaning. Rye is one of several cereals that grow wild in the Levant , central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in

624-475: Is probably that Suur-Pakri had more inhabitants and better farming lands and was reckoned as more important. The islands lie a few kilometers off the Estonian coast. Väike-Pakri lies 3 km west of Paldiski , separated from it by Paldiski (Pakri) Bay ( Swedish : Rågövik ), over 20 m deep. The shallow 3 km wide Kurkse strait separates the islands from the mainland in south. The area of Väike-Pakri,

672-466: Is refined into a flour high in gliadin but low in glutenin and rich in soluble fiber. Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. pericarp , testa and aleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight). Rye bread , including pumpernickel , is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe. In Scandinavia, rye

720-565: Is sometimes grown as a perennial . Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres . Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic , some 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in

768-572: Is widely used to make crispbread ( Knäckebröd ); in the Middle Ages it was a staple food in the region, and it remains popular in the 21st century. Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer . The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beverage kvass is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt. Rye is a useful forage crop in cool climates; it grows vigorously and provides plentiful fodder for grazing animals, or green manure to improve

816-566: The Euphrates valley of northern Syria suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago. However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff . Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor ( Anatolia , now Turkey), such as

864-747: The Fertile Crescent ; rice was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticated by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution . This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade , with some countries producing large portions of

912-607: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük , but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE. It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as a secondary crop , meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry , and was only later cultivated in its own right. Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along

960-616: The Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation". He said it was mixed with spelt "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach". Rye is a tall grass grown for its seeds; it can be an annual or

1008-685: The Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist , a field spirit shaped like a wolf . The Roggenwolf steals children and feeds on them. The last grain heads are often left at their place as a sacrifice for the agricultural spirits. In contrast, the Roggenmuhme or Roggenmutter ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar and may end in tips of iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. The Roggenmuhme

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1056-539: The Soviet Era , until 1992, the islands were used as a proving ground for aerial bombardment by Warsaw Pact countries. After control of the islands was returned to Estonia in 1994, the main aim became to clear the area of unexploded bombs . Thousands of explosive devices were destroyed and the work was mostly completed by 1997. During the land reform following the restoration of independence in Estonia some of

1104-486: The grain market is a major global commodity market that includes crops such as maize , rice , soybeans , wheat and other grains. Grains and cereal are synonymous with caryopses , the fruits of the grass family . In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called grains if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as " grain amaranth ", and amaranth products may be described as "whole grains". The pre-Hispanic civilizations of

1152-685: The Andes had grain-based food systems, but at higher elevations none of the grains was a cereal . All three grains native to the Andes ( kaniwa , kiwicha , and quinoa ) are broad-leafed plants rather than grasses such as corn, rice, and wheat. A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods . They include rice , wheat , rye , oats , barley , millet , and maize . Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa , are pseudocereals . Most cereals are annuals , producing one crop from each planting, though rice

1200-420: The cereal supply for other countries. Starchy grains from broadleaf (dicot) plant families: Pulses or grain legumes , members of the pea family , have a higher protein content than most other plant foods, at around 20%, while soybeans have as much as 35%. As is the case with all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrates and fat. Common pulses include: Oilseed grains are grown primarily for

1248-486: The creation of the first temporary settlements and the division of society into classes. This assumption that grain agriculture led to early settlements and social stratification has been challenged by James Scott in his book Against the Grain . He argues that the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agrarian communities was not a voluntary choice driven by the benefits of increased food production due to

1296-415: The crop can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production of antifreeze polypeptides (different from those produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye. Rye is a common, unwanted invader of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat. Pests including the nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci and

1344-481: The eastern island, is 12.9 km, Suur-Pakri covers 11.6 km (8th and 9th largest islands in Estonia). Väike-Pakri is also higher than Suur-Pakri (17 m and 8 m, respectively). Both islands are about 6 km long (in southeast–northwest direction) and 2-2.5 km wide. A few islets are situated in the 1-1.5 km wide and shallow (2–4 m deep) strait between the two islands. In 1952, an embankment connecting

1392-498: The end of 2009 the islands had 6 permanent inhabitants. Rye Secale fragile M.Bieb. Rye ( Secale cereale ) is a grass grown extensively as a grain , a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in

1440-454: The extraction of their edible oil . Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids . They are also used as fuel and lubricants. Ancient grains is a marketing term used to describe a category of grains and pseudocereals that are purported to have been minimally changed by selective breeding over recent millennia, as opposed to more widespread cereals such as corn , rice and modern varieties of wheat , which are

1488-880: The fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of the Roggenmutter ". The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known as Wulfzähne (wolf teeth). Grain A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit ( caryopsis ) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes . After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other staple foods , such as starchy fruits ( plantains , breadfruit , etc.) and tubers ( sweet potatoes , cassava , and more). This durability has made grains well suited to industrial agriculture , since they can be mechanically harvested , transported by rail or ship, stored for long periods in silos , and milled for flour or pressed for oil . Thus,

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1536-422: The final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time. Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying. Rye is harvested like wheat with a combine harvester , which cuts the plants, threshes and winnows

1584-735: The grain trade, such as the fall of the Roman Empire . From the early modern period onward, grain trade has been an important part of colonial expansion and international power dynamics. The geopolitical dominance of countries like Australia, the United States, Canada and the Soviet Union during the 20th century was connected with their status as grain surplus countries. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards and exposures . Risks include grain entrapment , where workers are submerged in

1632-401: The grain, and releases the straw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local silos or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of mechanised agriculture , rye harvesting was a manual task performed with scythes or sickles . Winter rye

1680-584: The head. Since the Middle Ages , people have cultivated rye widely in Central and Eastern Europe . It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the France–Germany border and north of Hungary . In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands. Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where

1728-481: The land was returned to its pre-war owners. The northern parts of the islands and the southern part of Väike-Pakri were incorporated to Pakri Landscape Conservation Area , created in 1998 to protect the limestone cliffs, alvars and rare species. In 2004, the islands got their first permanent inhabitant in decades, when a person born there during the Second World War returned to rebuild his parents' farm. At

1776-402: The long storage potential of grains, but rather that the shift towards settlements was a coerced transformation imposed by dominant members of a society seeking to expand control over labor and resources. The grain trade refers to the local and international trade in cereals such as wheat , barley , maize , and rice , and other food grains . Grain is an important trade item because it

1824-419: The people started to live in the islands, is unknown. In 1345, five Swedish families bought the western island from Padise monastery . According to the 1934 Estonian census , the islands had 354 inhabitants, all of them Swedes except for 13 Germans . There were 5 villages, a total of 119 households, a small folk museum (opened in 1935, closed in 1940) and both islands had their own church and school. Following

1872-449: The pollination abilities of wheat can be improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increases the size of the wheat anther and the amount of pollen. The 1R chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes . Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat. AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to both lodging and shattering . Rye

1920-524: The product of thousands of years of selective breeding. Ancient grains are often marketed as being more nutritious than modern grains, though their health benefits over modern varieties have been disputed by some nutritionists . Because grains are small, hard and dry, they can be stored, measured, and transported more readily than can other kinds of food crops such as fresh fruits, roots and tubers. The development of grain agriculture allowed excess food to be produced and stored easily which could have led to

1968-493: The qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist . The rye genus Secale is in the grass tribe Triticeae , which contains other cereals such as barley ( Hordeum ) and wheat ( Triticum ). The generic name Secale , related to Italian segale and French seigle meaning "rye",

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2016-610: The signing of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the subsequent action of the Soviet Union (see Soviet ultimatums in 1939 ), in 1940 all the islanders were forced to leave - the islands were designated as a military base for the Soviet Army . Most of Pakri Swedes left for Sweden before 1944, during the German occupation of Estonia . After the Second World War Väike-Pakri had a few inhabitants until 1965. During

2064-414: The soil has sand or peat . Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains, surviving snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Winter rye is the most popular: it is planted and begins to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop rapidly. This allows it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated. The physical properties of rye affect attributes of

2112-461: The soil. It forms a good cover crop in winter with its rapid growth and deep roots. Rye straw is used as livestock bedding , despite the risk of ergot poisoning. It is used on a small scale to make crafts such as corn dollies . More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetener xylitol . Rye flour is mixed with linseed oil and iron oxide to make traditional Falun red paint, widely used as

2160-679: The two islands over some of the islets was built by the Soviet army . A limestone cliff borders the northern coast of both islands and also the eastern coast of Väike-Pakri. Part of the Baltic Klint , it rises up to 4 m on Suur-Pakri and up to 13 m on Väike-Pakri. Both islands are essentially part of a larger limestone plateau in Northern Estonia. Before the Second World War the two islands had 5 villages, three on Suur-Pakri and two on Väike-Pakri. Suur-Pakri Väike-Pakri When

2208-436: The year. It is a member of the wheat tribe ( Triticeae ) which includes the cereals wheat and barley . Rye grain is used for bread , beer , rye whiskey , and animal fodder . In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale , combines

2256-597: Was $ 186 million compared with $ 30.1 billion for wheat. Poland consumes the most rye per person at 32.4 kg (71 lb) per capita (2009), followed by the Nordic and Baltic countries. The EU in general is around 5.6 kg (12 lb) per capita. The entire world only consumes 0.9 kg (2 lb) per capita. Raw rye contains 11% water, 76% carbohydrates , 10% protein , and 2% fat (table). A 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference amount of rye provides 1,410 kilojoules (338 kilocalories) of food energy , and

2304-428: Was the gene donor of Sr31 – a stem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat. The characteristics of S. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye, S. montanum , to produce S. cereanum , which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein. In European folklore,

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