A palatine or palatinus ( Latin ; pl. : palatini ; cf. derivative spellings below) is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times. The term palatinus was first used in Ancient Rome for chamberlains of the Emperor due to their association with the Palatine Hill . The imperial palace guard, after the rise of Constantine I , were also called the Scholae Palatinae for the same reason. In the Early Middle Ages the title became attached to courts beyond the imperial one; one of the highest level of officials in the papal administration were called the judices palatini . Later the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties had counts palatine , as did the Holy Roman Empire . Related titles were used in Hungary , Poland , Lithuania , the German Empire , and the County of Burgundy , while England , Ireland , and parts of British North America referred to rulers of counties palatine as palatines .
50-749: The different spellings originate from the different languages that used the title throughout the ages (a phenomenon called lenition ). The word "palatine" evolved from the Latin word palatinus , asserting a connection to the Palatine Hill , where the house of the Roman emperor was situated since Augustus (hence " palace "). The meaning of the term hardly changed, since Latin was the dominant language in medieval writing. But its spelling slightly changed in European languages: Latin palatinus , plural palatini
100-750: A 'good night' lenition is blocked ( nos as a feminine noun normally causes lenition of a following modifier, for example Gwener 'Friday' yields nos Wener 'Friday night'). Within Celtic, blocked lenition phenomena also occur in Irish (for example ao n d oras 'one door', an chéa d d uine 'the first person') and Manx (for example u n d orrys 'one door', yn chie d d ooinney 'the first man') however. Outside Celtic, in Spanish orthographic b d g are retained as [b, d, ɡ] following nasals rather than their normal lenited forms [β, ð, ɣ] . In
150-525: A trill to a tap . The spirantization of Gaelic nasal /m/ to /v/ is unusual among forms of lenition, but it is triggered by the same environment as more prototypical lenition. (It may also leave a residue of nasalization in adjacent vowels.) The orthography shows that by inserting an h (except after l n r ). Some languages which have lenition have in addition complex rules affecting situations where lenition might be expected to occur but does not, often those involving homorganic consonants . This
200-525: A consonant mutation in which a consonant changes from one considered weak to one considered strong. Fortition is less frequent than lenition in the languages of the world, but word-initial and word-final fortition is fairly frequent. Italian, for example, presents numerous regular examples of word-initial fortition both historically (Lat. Januarius with initial /j/ > gennaio , with [dʒ] ) and synchronically (e.g., /ˈkaza/ "house, home" → [ˈkaːza] but /a ˈkaza/ "at home" → [aˈkːaːza] ). Catalan
250-473: A feminine noun taking the ending -a . The historic development of lenition in those two cases can be reconstructed as follows: Synchronic lenition in Scottish Gaelic affects almost all consonants (except /l̪ˠ/ , which has lost its lenited counterpart in most areas). Changes such as /n̪ˠ/ to /n/ involve the loss of secondary articulation ; in addition, /rˠ/ → /ɾ/ involves the reduction of
300-469: A language at a particular point in time) and diachronically (as a language changes over time ). Lenition can involve such changes as voicing a voiceless consonant, causing a consonant to relax occlusion , to lose its place of articulation (a phenomenon called debuccalization , which turns a consonant into a glottal consonant like [ h ] or [ ʔ ] ), or even causing a consonant to disappear entirely. An example of synchronic lenition
350-609: A language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by chronemes , approximants , taps or even trills . For example, Finnish used to have a complete set of spirantization reflexes for /p t k/ , though these have been lost in favour of similar-sounding phonemes. In the Southern Ostrobothnian , Tavastian and southwestern dialects of Finnish, /ð/ mostly changed into /r/ , thus
400-576: A man in the service of his emperor. It was a knight with additional honors, they were entitled to exercise powers normally reserved to the crown. In Nazi Germany , Hermann Göring was also given the title "Paladin", referring to the tradition of a title that made the bearer second to the monarch. Lenition In linguistics , lenition is a sound change that alters consonants , making them “weaker” in some way. The word lenition itself means "softening" or "weakening" (from Latin lēnis 'weak'). Lenition can happen both synchronically (within
450-433: A stronger sound becomes a weaker one. Lenition can be seen as a movement on the sonority hierarchy from less sonorous to more sonorous, or on a strength hierarchy from stronger to weaker. In examples below, a greater-than sign indicates that one sound changes to another. The notation [t] > [ts] means that [t] changes to [ts] . The sound change of palatalization sometimes involves lenition. Lenition includes
500-495: A type of assimilation of the consonant to the surrounding vowels, in which features of the consonant that are not present in the surrounding vowels (e.g. obstruction, voicelessness) are gradually eliminated. Some of the sounds generated by lenition are often subsequently "normalized" into related but cross-linguistically more common sounds. An example would be the changes [b] → [β] → [v] and [d] → [ð] → [z] . Such normalizations correspond to diagonal movements down and to
550-590: Is y cathod , not * y gathod . The change of / k / to [ ɡ ] in y gath is thus caused by the syntax of the phrase, not by the modern phonological position of the consonant / k / . The opposite of lenition, fortition , a sound change that makes a consonant "stronger", is less common, but Breton and Cornish have "hard mutation" forms which represent fortition. Lenition involves changes in manner of articulation , sometimes accompanied by small changes in place of articulation . There are two main lenition pathways: opening and sonorization. In both cases,
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#1732765793844600-452: Is also a form of lenition. An example with geminate consonants comes from Finnish , where geminates become simple consonants while retaining voicing or voicelessness (e.g. katto → katon , dubbaan → dubata ). It is also possible for entire consonant clusters to undergo lenition, as in Votic , where voiceless clusters become voiced, e.g. itke- "to cry" → idgön . If
650-690: Is among numerous Romance languages with diachronic word-final devoicing ( frigidus > */ˈfɾɛd/ > fred [ˈfɾɛt] . Fortition also occurs in Catalan for /b d ɡ/ in consonant clusters with a lateral consonant (Lat. populus > poble [ˈpɔbːɫə] or [ˈpɔpːɫə] . Word-medially, /lː/ is subject to fortition in numerous Romance languages, ranging from [ɖː] or [dː] in many speech types on Italian soil to [dʒ] in some varieties of Spanish. Palatinus (Roman Catholic Church) Palatinus (plural: Palatini ), Latin for "palatial", were designations for various ecclesiastical offices in
700-420: Is colloquially known as 'blocked lenition', or more technically as 'homorganic inhibition' or 'homorganic blocking'. In Scottish Gaelic, for example, there are three homorganic groups: In a position where lenition is expected due to the grammatical environment, lenition tends to be blocked if there are two adjacent homorganic consonants across the word boundary. For example: In modern Scottish Gaelic this rule
750-447: Is diachronic in the sense that the developments took place over time and displaced [b, d, g] as the normal pronunciations between vowels. It is also synchronic in an analysis of [β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞] as allophonic realizations of /b, d, g/ : illustrating with /b/ , /bino/ 'wine' is pronounced [bino] after pause, but with [β̞] intervocalically, as in [de β̞ino] 'of wine'; likewise, /loba/ → [loβ̞a] . A similar development occurred in
800-441: Is found in most varieties of American English , in the form of tapping : the / t / of a word like wait [weɪt] is pronounced as the more sonorous [ ɾ ] in the related form waiting [ˈweɪɾɪŋ] . Some varieties of Spanish show debuccalization of / s / to [ h ] at the end of a syllable , so that a word like estamos "we are" is pronounced [ehˈtamoh] . An example of diachronic lenition can be found in
850-538: Is no longer triggered by its phonological environment but is now governed by its syntactic or morphological environment. For example, in Welsh , the word cath "cat" begins with the sound / k / , but after the definite article y , the / k / changes to [ ɡ ] : "the cat" in Welsh is y gath . This was historically due to intervocalic lenition, but in the plural, lenition does not happen, so "the cats"
900-500: Is only productive in the case of dentals but not the other two groups for the vast majority of speakers. It also does not affect all environments any more. For example, while aon still invokes the rules of blocked lenition, a noun followed by an adjective generally no longer does so. Hence: There is a significant number of frozen forms involving the other two groups (labials and velars) and environments as well, especially in surnames and place names: Though rare, in some instances
950-458: Is realized [ʒ] between vowels, and in typical speech of Central Tuscany, the voiceless stops /p t k/ in the same position are pronounced respectively [ɸ θ x/h] , as in /la kasa/ → [laˈhaːsa] 'the house', /buko/ → [ˈbuːho] 'hole'. Diachronic lenition is found, for example, in the change from Latin into Spanish , in which the intervocalic voiceless stops [p t k] first changed into their voiced counterparts [b d ɡ] , and later into
1000-550: Is traditionally called "eclipsis" in Irish grammar). Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole, as it is synchronic (the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (after historic nasals). For example taigh [t̪ʰɤj] "house" → an taigh [ən̪ˠˈd̪ʱɤj] "the house". The phenomenon of consonant gradation in Finnic languages
1050-478: The /k/ of /kasa/ as [ˈkaːsa] casa 'house' in a post-pause realization, [iŋˈkaːsa] in casa 'in (the) house' post-consonant, but [laˈhaːsa] la casa 'the house' intervocalically. Word-internally, the normal realization is also [h] : /ˈbuko/ buco 'hole' → [ˈbuːho] . In the Celtic languages , the phenomenon of intervocalic lenition historically extended across word boundaries. This explains
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#17327657938441100-527: The Catholic Church , primarily of certain high officials in the papal court . In the Middle Ages, the judices palatini ( papal palace judges ) were the highest administrative officers of the pope's household; with the growth of the temporal power of the popes they acquired great importance. These judices palatini were These various offices developed from the end of the fourth century, with
1150-488: The Gaelic script , fricating lenition (usually called simply lenition ) is indicated by a dot above the affected consonant, and in the Roman script, the convention is to suffix the letter h to the consonant, to signify that it is lenited. Thus, a ṁáṫair is equivalent to a mháthair . In Middle Irish manuscripts, lenition of s and f was indicated by the dot above, and lenition of p , t , and c
1200-581: The Germanic languages is evidenced by Latin-English cognates such as pater , tenuis , cornu vs. father , thin , horn . The Latin words preserved the original stops, which became fricatives in old Germanic by Grimm's law . A few centuries later, the High German consonant shift led to a second series of lenitions in Old High German , chiefly of post-vocalic stops, as evidenced in
1250-531: The Romance languages , where the / t / of Latin patrem ("father", accusative ) has become / d / in Italian and Spanish padre (the latter weakened synchronically / d / → [ ð̞ ] ), while in Catalan pare , French père and Portuguese pai historical / t / has disappeared completely. In some languages, lenition has been grammaticalized into a consonant mutation , which means it
1300-559: The Slavic voivode , a military governor of a province. In Poland the title of Palatyn ( Comes Palatinus ) has merged with that of Wojewoda ( Dux Exercituum ). The members of the Imperial Guard were named after Palatine Hill , the mythical founding place of Rome. On the same hill lived the members of the older of two schools of the ancient Salii brotherhood of God of War Mars , which had some symbolism in common with that of
1350-622: The diphthong /au/ , which was monophthongized , yielding the monophthong /o/ in Modern French. Sometimes a particular example of lenition mixes the opening and sonorization pathways. For example, [kʰ] may spirantize or open to [x] , then voice or sonorize to [ɣ] . Lenition can be seen in Canadian and American English , where /t/ and /d/ soften to a tap [ɾ] ( flapping ) when not in initial position and followed by an unstressed vowel. For example, both rate and raid plus
1400-856: The Celtic languages, where non-geminate intervocalic consonants were converted into their corresponding weaker counterparts through lenition (usually stops into fricatives but also laterals and trills into weaker laterals and taps), and voiceless stops became voiced. For example, Indo-European intervocalic * -t- in * teu̯teh₂ "people" resulted in Proto-Celtic *toutā , Primitive Irish * tōθā , Old Irish túath /t̪ʰuaθ/ and ultimately debuccalisation in most Irish and some Scottish dialects to /t̪ʰuəh/ , shift in Central Southern Irish to /t̪ʰuəx/ , and complete deletion in some Modern Irish and most Modern Scots Gaelic dialects, thus /t̪ʰuə/ . An example of historical lenition in
1450-481: The English-German cognates ripe , water , make vs. reif , Wasser , machen . Although actually a much more profound change encompassing syllable restructuring, simplification of geminate consonants as in the passage from Latin to Spanish such as cuppa > /ˈkopa/ 'cup' is often viewed as a type of lenition (compare geminate-preserving Italian /ˈkɔppa/ ). All varieties of Sardinian , with
1500-569: The Middle Ages, the judices palatini ( papal palace judges ) were the highest administrative officers of the pope's household. In Early Modern Britain, the term palatinate , or county palatine , was also applied to counties of lords who could exercise powers normally reserved to the crown. Likewise, there were palatine provinces among the English colonies in North America: Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore ,
1550-505: The approximants or fricatives [β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞] : vita > vida , lupa > loba , caeca > ciega , apotheca > bodega . One stage in these changes goes beyond phonetic to have become a phonological restructuring , e.g. /lupa/ > /loba/ (compare /lupa/ in Italian, with no change in the phonological status of /p/ ). The subsequent further weakening of the series to phonetic [β̞ ð̞ ɣ̞] , as in [loβ̞a]
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1600-511: The count palatine had administrative functions, especially concerning the king's household. In the 9th century Carolingian rule came to an end and the title of Holy Roman emperor with it. About a century later the title was resurrected by Otto I though the new empire was now centered on Germany rather than France . Under the German kings of the Saxon and Salian dynasties (10th to 12th century),
1650-747: The count palatine of Lotharingia, whose office had been attached to the royal palace at Aachen from the 10th century onward, became the real successor to the Carolingian count palatine . From his office grew the Countship Palatine of the Rhine, or simply the Palatinate , which became a great territorial power from the time of the emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) (d. 1190) on. The term palatine reoccurs under Charles IV, but they had only voluntary jurisdiction and some honorific functions. In
1700-410: The dialects have a synchronic lenition of an alveolar stop into an alveolar trill /t/ → /r/ . Furthermore, the same phoneme /t/ undergoes assibilation /t/ → /s/ before the vowel /i/ , e.g. root vete- "water" → vesi and vere- . Here, vete- is the stem, vesi is its nominative, and vere- is the same stem under consonant gradation. Fortition is the opposite of lenition:
1750-478: The formation of the papal household . Their functions covered the whole central administration of the papacy, both at Rome and in the outlying possessions ( patrimonia ) of the Roman Church. The judices palatini were also employed as papal envoys; they also had definite duties in the solemn processions and other great church ceremonies at which the pope was present in person. Their authority continued down until
1800-620: The function of the counts palatine corresponded to those of the missi dominici at the Carolingian Court. They had various tasks: representatives of the king in the provinces, they were responsible for the administration of the royal domain and for protecting and guiding the legal system in certain duchies, such as Saxony and Bavaria , and, in particular, Lotharingia . Later other palatine rights were absorbed by ducal dynasties, by local families, or, in Italy, by bishops. Increasingly,
1850-506: The imperial palace. Military training schools were the scholae , and the Imperial Guard was called Scholae Palatinae . It was a personal army that the emperor was allowed to use personally on campaigns. From the Middle Ages on, the term palatine was applied to various officials across Europe. The most important of these was the comes palatinus , the count palatine , who in Merovingian and Carolingian times (5th through 10th century)
1900-401: The loss of a feature, such as deglottalization , in which glottalization or ejective articulation is lost: [kʼ] or [kˀ] > [k] . The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative. In
1950-526: The middle of the eleventh century, when the reforms of the papal administration, inaugurated after the troubles of the tenth century, placed the Cardinals in that position at the Roman curia , which the judices palatini had previously occupied, and the latter gradually disappeared. In later times, the designation palatini was borne by certain cardinals, whose position brought them into constant relation with
2000-439: The modern Celtic languages, lenition of the "fricating" type is usually denoted by adding an h to the lenited letter. In Welsh, for example, c , p , and t change into ch , ph , th as a result of the so-called "aspirate mutation" ( carreg , "stone" → ei charreg "her stone"). An exception is Manx orthography , which tends to be more phonetic, but in some cases, etymological principles are applied. In
2050-548: The opening type of lenition, the articulation becomes more open with each step. Opening lenition involves several sound changes: shortening of double consonants, affrication of stops, spirantization or assibilation of stops or affricates, debuccalization , and finally elision . The sonorization type involves voicing. Sonorizing lenition involves several sound changes: voicing, approximation, and vocalization. Sonorizing lenition occurs especially often intervocalically (between vowels). In this position, lenition can be seen as
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2100-405: The right in the above table. In other cases, sounds are lenited and normalized at the same time; examples would be direct changes [b] → [v] or [d] → [z] . L -vocalization is a subtype of the sonorization type of lenition. It has two possible results: a velar approximant or back vowel, or a palatal approximant or front vowel. In French , l -vocalization of the sequence /al/ resulted in
2150-421: The rise of grammaticalised initial consonant mutations in modern Celtic languages through the loss of endings. A Scottish Gaelic example would be the lack of lenition in am fear /əm fɛr/ ("the man") and lenition in a’ bhean /ə vɛn/ ("the woman"). The following examples show the development of a phrase consisting of a definite article plus a masculine noun (taking the ending -os ) compared with
2200-463: The rules of blocked lenition can be invoked by lost historical consonants, for example, in the case of the past-tense copula bu , which in Common Celtic had a final -t. In terms of blocked lenition, it continues to behave as a dental-final particle invoking blocked lenition rules: In Brythonic languages, only fossilized vestiges of lenition blocking occur, for example in Welsh no s d
2250-510: The sole exception of Nuorese , offer an example of sandhi in which the rule of intervocalic lenition applying to the voiced series /b d g/ extends across word boundaries. Since it is a fully active synchronic rule, lenition is not normally indicated in the standard orthographies. A series of synchronic lenitions involving opening, or loss of occlusion, rather than voicing is found for post-vocalic /p t k/ in many Tuscan dialects of Central Italy . Stereotypical Florentine , for example, has
2300-427: The suffix -er are pronounced [ˈɹeɪ̯ɾɚ] . The Italian of Central and Southern Italy has a number of lenitions, the most widespread of which is the deaffrication of /t͡ʃ/ to [ʃ] between vowels: post-pausal cena [ˈt͡ʃeːna] 'dinner' but post-vocalic la cena [laˈʃeːna] 'the dinner'; the name Luciano , although structurally /luˈt͡ʃano/ , is normally pronounced [luˈʃaːno] . In Tuscany, /d͡ʒ/ likewise
2350-509: Was an official of the sovereign's household, in particular of his court of law in the imperial palaces (see kaiserpfalz ). The count palatine was the official representative at proceedings of the court such as oath takings or judicial sentences and was in charge of the records of those developments. At first he examined cases in the king's court and was authorized to carry out the decisions, in time, these rights extended to having his own judicial rights. In addition to those responsibilities,
2400-607: Was granted palatine rights in Maryland in 1632, as were the proprietors of the Carolinas in 1663. And although with tongue in cheek, legal historian John Phillip Reid once asked if the Hudson's Bay Company jurisdiction of " Rupert's Land can be analogized to a county palatine". His question is yet to receive serious scholarly attention. In 19th-century Germany , Paladin was an official rank and considered an honorary title for
2450-546: Was indicated by the postposed h ; lenition of other letters was not indicated consistently in the orthography. Voicing lenition is represented by a simple letter switch in the Brythonic languages , for instance carreg , "stone" → y garreg , "the stone" in Welsh. In Irish orthography , it is shown by writing the "weak" consonant alongside the (silent) "strong" one: peann , "pen" → ár bpeann "our pen", ceann , "head" → ár gceann "our head" (sonorization
2500-673: Was still an office in Merovingian times, today referred to as the Count Palatine . The word became in French palaisin , and with the Norman dynasty entered the English language as palatine . The word paladin , referring to one of the legendary Twelve Peers of Charlemagne in the Matter of France , is also related. The word palatinus and its derivatives also translate the titles of certain great functionaries in eastern Europe, such as
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