Vegetable oils , or vegetable fats , are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants . Like animal fats , vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides . Soybean oil , grape seed oil , and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils , or fats from seeds. Olive oil , palm oil , and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible.
114-615: Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of oil palms . The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel . Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014. Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in ultra-processed foods , so they are frequently favored by food manufacturers. Globally, humans consumed an average of 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015. Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, encouraging
228-477: A direct fuel , as well as in the production of biodiesel , livestock feed , pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals. Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed. Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from
342-477: A direct fuel , as well as in the production of biodiesel , livestock feed , pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals. Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed. Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from
456-592: A 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands. The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as
570-485: A German chemist, introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats , leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening . In the United States, cottonseed oil was developed, and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911. Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away
684-422: A German chemist, introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats , leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening . In the United States, cottonseed oil was developed, and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911. Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away
798-442: A biofuel. Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel. Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness. In 2023–2024, world production of palm oil was 77.3 million tonnes , led by Indonesia with 57% of
912-762: A carcinogen). Reports of indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion. In 2017, there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and indigenous land owners. Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources, such as wild rubber, reed, and adat forests (communal forests). Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes, either through protest or legal means. Other concerns when it comes to indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations, political corruption, or
1026-756: A cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup . Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer. Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include
1140-705: A cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution . Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever ) "Sunlight", and B. J. Johnson Company's (now Colgate-Palmolive ) "Palmolive," and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries. In 1780, Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann ,
1254-448: A deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds. People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for vegetable oil mist exposure in
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#17327871955231368-448: A deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds. People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for vegetable oil mist exposure in
1482-851: A high flash point . Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean , rapeseed , canola , sunflower , safflower , peanut , cottonseed , etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut , palm , and rice bran . The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products. Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils , and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example,
1596-799: A high flash point . Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean , rapeseed , canola , sunflower , safflower , peanut , cottonseed , etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut , palm , and rice bran . The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products. Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils , and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example,
1710-511: A highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution . Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers ' (now Unilever ) " Sunlight " soap, and the American Palmolive brand. By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, which often led to oppressive labor practices, as highlighted in
1824-477: A lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations, because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil. Kenya 's domestic production of edible oils covers about
1938-451: A non-toxic alternative to other solvents. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening , will remain solid at room temperature. Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes
2052-451: A non-toxic alternative to other solvents. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening , will remain solid at room temperature. Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes
2166-724: A part of human culture for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel . Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho , but cites no source. In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during the mummification process. Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication. Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as
2280-456: A quarter of the burned area. The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Indonesia, much of which is caused by palm oil production has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels, claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for
2394-499: A region accounts for 52.5 million metric tons (57.9 million short tons) of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets
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#17327871955232508-441: A sharp increase in palm oil . Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats , including butter , ghee , lard , and schmaltz . The oils serve a number of purposes in this role: Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods . Oils for this purpose must have
2622-441: A sharp increase in palm oil . Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats , including butter , ghee , lard , and schmaltz . The oils serve a number of purposes in this role: Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods . Oils for this purpose must have
2736-458: A solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered. Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe. There are several different types of mechanical extraction. Expeller pressing extraction
2850-458: A solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered. Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe. There are several different types of mechanical extraction. Expeller pressing extraction
2964-409: A source of Vitamin A and Vitamin E. Crude PO can be refined to remove its non-triglyceride components. RBD PO is also known as white palm oil . It can be further fractionated using the different melting points of its components. The part with a higher melting point, which crystalizes out as a solid earlier, is called palm stearin . It consists of mostly saturated fats. The remaining liquid part
3078-461: A source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg , Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil . In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day". The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937. Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during
3192-406: A source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg , Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil . In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day". The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937. Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during
3306-475: A study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation . In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca . Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries. Ghana has
3420-539: A third of its annual demand, estimated at 380,000 metric tons (420,000 short tons). The rest is imported at a cost of around US$ 140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating
3534-651: A threat to edible palm oil supplies. According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food. One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides , child labor , rape and sexual abuse , and unsafe carrying loads. These incidents may receive no response by
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3648-470: Is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity ( oxidation ) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase. While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in
3762-470: Is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity ( oxidation ) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase. While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in
3876-418: Is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability ( saturation ) of the refined product when used for frying. One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of palm oil per person in 2015. Palm oil
3990-471: Is a mixture of water, crude palm oil, and fibers from the palm fruit. A minimum degree of processing is required to obtain the oil. The mixture is first passed through a filter to remove the solids, then separated by density to remove the water. Density treatment can also act as a basic form of degumming, provided that the fruit is steamed before milling to hydrolyze the gum, at a cost of also losing some triglycerides to hydrolysis. The result of basic processing
4104-521: Is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year. The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was: These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production
4218-470: Is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year. The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was: These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production
4332-493: Is called palm olein . It is also possible to fractionate at a different point of processing, even with crude palm oil. RBD PO, or "palm shortening ", is extensively used in food manufacture. It is valued for its low polyunsaturated fat content, which offers high stability against rancidity and allows it to replace hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products. The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it
4446-460: Is called a "crude palm oil" or a " red palm oil ", referring to its intense color due to the high carotenoid content. Red palm oil is a traditional cooking oil in West Africa. The free fatty acids within provide a "bite" to the flavor. The triglyceride part is around 50% saturated fat —considerably less than palm kernel oil —and 40% monounsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat . It is
4560-592: Is common, though the screw press , ram press , and ghani (powered mortar and pestle ) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India. The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India: The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications
4674-481: Is common, though the screw press , ram press , and ghani (powered mortar and pestle ) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India. The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India: The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications
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4788-433: Is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane . This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 149 °C (300 °F). Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as
4902-433: Is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane . This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 149 °C (300 °F). Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as
5016-462: Is growing and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing. The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%. The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using
5130-462: Is growing and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing. The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%. The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using
5244-399: Is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage; however, deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils. The biggest global producers of palm oil are Indonesia, who produced 60% of it in 2022, followed by Malaysia, Thailand, and Nigeria. Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil. Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In
5358-680: Is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids. Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%; these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated . The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with
5472-522: Is still produced by women for domestic use. The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology . They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption. Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the United States. However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before
5586-457: Is the world's third largest producer of crude palm oil, producing 3.6 million tonnes in 2023-24. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai (750,000 to 930,000 hectares; 1,900,000 to 2,300,000 acres) were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai (3.2 hectares; 7.9 acres). ASEAN as
5700-459: Is traditionally, and still industrially, produced by milling the fruits of oil palm. Besides milling, palm oil is produced by cold-pressing the fruit of the oil palm since the 1990s. This type of artisanal palm oil is usually not further refined, so they keep the natural red color. It is bottled for use as a cooking oil , in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil . The result of milling or cold-pressing
5814-557: Is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen , and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to
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#17327871955235928-557: Is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen , and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to
6042-544: Is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity . Other significant oils include: Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed ( endosperm ) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils. Claims that seed oils are unhealthy are not supported by scientific evidence. Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling
6156-544: Is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity . Other significant oils include: Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed ( endosperm ) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils. Claims that seed oils are unhealthy are not supported by scientific evidence. Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling
6270-465: The Indochinese tiger . Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture . This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss . For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan . One species in particular,
6384-927: The Sumatran orangutan , has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation. In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict . Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations. The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure , social services and reduce poverty. However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of
6498-485: The mummification process. Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication. Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution . Palm oil formed
6612-434: The 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel , produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during
6726-434: The 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel , produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during
6840-490: The 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles. In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of
6954-490: The 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles. In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of
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#17327871955237068-483: The account of Abina Mansah's life. However, this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations. Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera ). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and
7182-458: The basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever ) "Sunlight", and B. J. Johnson Company's (now Colgate-Palmolive ) "Palmolive," and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries. In 1780, Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann ,
7296-482: The canola name in January 1985, and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil. The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by
7410-427: The canola name in January 1985, and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil. The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by
7524-443: The carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat , has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it
7638-443: The carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat , has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it
7752-472: The climate than the benefits gained by switching to biofuel and using the palms as carbon sinks . Vegetable oil Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel . Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho , but cites no source. In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during
7866-528: The company or police, or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser. Pesticides used by palm oil plantations include paraquat , which has been banned in Europe over links to Parkinson's disease , and glyphosate , which has been involved in a US class-action lawsuit regarding cancer (the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage but did not find evidence implicating it as
7980-419: The cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid. Soybeans are protein-rich, and
8094-419: The cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid. Soybeans are protein-rich, and
8208-539: The country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil. Palm oil was introduced to British Burma (now Myanmar) in the 1920s. Beginning in the 1970s, smaller-scale palm oil plantations were developed in Tanintharyi Region , and Mon , Kayin , and Rakhine States . In 1999,
8322-521: The economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale , claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land , whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact . They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops. According to recent article by National Geographic , most palm oil in Benin
8436-499: The expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover . As of 2023-24, Nigeria was the fifth-largest producer, with 1.5 million tonnes. Both small- and large-scale producers participate in the industry. In much of the Niger Delta , palm oil is commonoly referred to as "red oil" (or red gold) to distinguish it from the "black oil" ( crude oil ) which dominates production. Thailand
8550-561: The exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides , plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life. In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product. Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain
8664-505: The exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides , plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life. In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product. Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain
8778-536: The fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore , which opened in 2011 with a capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia. Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%). In 2014, almost half of all
8892-412: The fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature. Palm oil
9006-537: The global supply chain. On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, producing 44 million tonnes in 2023-24. Malaysia is the world's second largest producer of palm oil, producing 19.7 million tonnes in 2023-24. In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation , the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit
9120-542: The growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries. The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental and human right groups . The palm oil industry is a significant contributor to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers. In 2018, a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil
9234-797: The indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict. The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry. Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development. The use of palm oil in
9348-429: The lacking of enforcement on laws meant to protect indigenous lands. In countries such as Guatemala, palm oil plantations have significant leverage within the local justice system, leading local police to disregard land claims, going as far as using force to break up protests, and even murdering local leaders. While only 5% of the world's vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations, palm cultivation produces 38% of
9462-409: The late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE. Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil . European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. Palm oil became
9576-424: The medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans. Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex , but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment. By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become
9690-424: The medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans. Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex , but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment. By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become
9804-578: The most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil . In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT). The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had
9918-530: The most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil . In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT). The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had
10032-431: The natural environment, including deforestation , loss of natural habitats, and greenhouse gas emissions which have threatened critically endangered species , such as the orangutan and Sumatran tiger . Slash-and-burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries. From January to September 2019, 857,000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia; peatlands accounted for more than
10146-548: The normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification . Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid and lubricant . One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid . Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil , are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to
10260-548: The normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification . Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid and lubricant . One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid . Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil , are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to
10374-436: The oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes. Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel , which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil , also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity . The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy
10488-436: The oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes. Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel , which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil , also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity . The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy
10602-401: The oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease , among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food. In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near
10716-401: The oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease , among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food. In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near
10830-474: The palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel. As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel. Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times the carbon emissions as using fossil fuel, and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better." There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains
10944-404: The presence of a hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11 . Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins. Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting
11058-404: The presence of a hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11 . Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins. Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting
11172-574: The price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations. Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of
11286-486: The production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose
11400-611: The project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations. The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity. In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached 1.6 million metric tons (1.8 million short tons), representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector). According to
11514-513: The rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction. A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants . Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as
11628-513: The rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction. A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants . Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as
11742-661: The ruling military junta, the State Peace and Development Council , initiated the large-scale development of such plantations, especially in Tanintharyi, the southernmost region of Myanmar. As of 2019, over 401,814 ha of palm oil concessions have been awarded to 44 companies. 60% of the awarded concessions consist of forests and native vegetation, and some concessions overlap with national parks, including Tanintharyi and Lenya National Parks , which have seen deforestation and threaten conservation efforts for endemic species like
11856-471: The smoke point or to about 232 °C (450 °F), and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through
11970-471: The smoke point or to about 232 °C (450 °F), and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through
12084-1032: The specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 , FAO, FAO. Vegetable fat Vegetable oils , or vegetable fats , are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants . Like animal fats , vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides . Soybean oil , grape seed oil , and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils , or fats from seeds. Olive oil , palm oil , and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible. Olive oil has been
12198-513: The total. The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million tonnes by 2050. During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change , the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil. This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in
12312-567: The word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient. A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable. From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate
12426-451: The word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient. A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable. From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate
12540-474: The word "palm". Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel . Palm oil methyl ester is created through a process called transesterification . Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels. Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of
12654-453: The workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm
12768-453: The workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm
12882-436: The world's total vegetable oil supply. In terms of oil yield, a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean , sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil. Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown. However, it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil-producing plants. In 2016, it
12996-522: Was found that palm oil farms produce around 4.17 metric tons of oil per hectare. By contrast other oils, such as sunflower, soybean, or peanut only produce 0.56, 0.39, and 0.16 metric tons respectively per hectare. Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield, requiring one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops. In the future, laboratory-grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices. However, palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on
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