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74-396: Paranthropus is a genus of extinct hominin which contains two widely accepted species : P. robustus and P. boisei . However, the validity of Paranthropus is contested, and it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with Australopithecus . They are also referred to as the robust australopithecines . They lived between approximately 2.9 and 1.2 million years ago (mya) from

148-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

222-623: A British patent (with W. R. Degenhardt) for a machine that could disintegrate clay and mix sand, cement and other materials. He received a patent in the US for the machine in 1929. Boise retired in 1959. Boise purchased Emmetts Garden , an Edwardian estate in Kent, in 1927. He was particularly fond of the gardens and built a new rock garden, camelia garden and bluebell dell. His experience with malaria -carrying mosquitos , which thrive in standing water, may have been behind his decision to fill in many of

296-423: A bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, and this exposed the root. The latter is most likely, and the exposed root seems to have caused hypercementosis to anchor the tooth in place. The cavity seems to have been healing, which may have been caused by a change in diet or mouth microbiome , or the loss of the adjacent molar. It was once thought P. boisei cracked open nuts with its powerful teeth, giving OH 5

370-585: A chimp-like ulna forearm bone was assigned to P. boisei , the first discovered ulna of the species, which was markedly different from P. robustus ulnae, which could suggest paraphyly. P. aethiopicus is the earliest member of the genus, with the oldest remains, from the Ethiopian Omo Kibish Formation , dated to 2.6 mya at the end of the Pliocene . It is sometimes regarded as the direct ancestor of P. boisei and P. robustus . It

444-471: A diet similar to contemporaneous Homo and nearly identical to the later H. ergaster , and subsisted on mainly C4 savanna plants and C3 forest plants, which could indicate either seasonal shifts in diet or seasonal migration from forest to savanna. In leaner times it may have fallen back on brittle food. It likely also consumed seeds and possibly tubers or termites . A high cavity rate could indicate honey consumption. The East African P. boisei , on

518-678: A drying trend 2.8–2.5 mya in the Great Rift Valley , which caused the retreat of woodland environments in favor of open savanna, with forests growing only along rivers and lakes. Homo evolved in the former, and Paranthropus in the latter riparian environment. However, the classifications of Australopithecus species is problematic. Evolutionary tree according to a 2019 study: Chimpanzee Ardipithecus A. afarensis P. aethiopicus P. boisei P. robustus A. africanus H. floresiensis A. sediba H. habilis Other Homo Paranthropus had

592-455: A harem society similar to modern forest-dwelling silverback gorillas , where one male has exclusive breeding rights to a group of females, as male-female size disparity is comparable to gorillas (based on facial dimensions), and younger males were less robust than older males (delayed maturity is also exhibited in gorillas). However, if P. robustus preferred a savanna habitat, a multi-male society would have been more productive to better defend

666-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

740-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

814-613: A massively built, tall and flat skull, with a prominent gorilla -like sagittal crest along the midline which anchored large temporalis muscles used in chewing. Like other australopithecines, Paranthropus exhibited sexual dimorphism, with males notably larger than females. They had large molars with a relatively thick tooth enamel coating ( post-canine megadontia ), and comparatively small incisors (similar in size to modern humans ), possibly adaptations to processing abrasive foods. The teeth of P. aethiopicus developed faster than those of P. boisei . Paranthropus had adaptations to

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888-422: A preference displayed for certain bones, raw materials were likely specifically hand-picked. This could indicate a similar cognitive ability to contemporary Stone Age Homo . Bone tools may have been used to cut or process vegetation, or dig up tubers or termites , The form of P. robustus incisors appear to be intermediate between H. erectus and modern humans, which could indicate less food processing done by

962-426: A rate similar to modern humans. A molar from Drimolen , South Africa, showed a cavity on the tooth root , a rare occurrence in fossil great apes . In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have had to have also presented either alveolar resportion , which is commonly associated with gum disease ; or super-eruption of teeth which occurs when teeth become worn down and have to erupt

1036-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1110-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1184-474: A toothless mandible from the Shungura Formation , Ethiopia (Omo 18). In 1976, American anthropologist Francis Clark Howell and Breton anthropologist Yves Coppens reclassified it as A. africanus . In 1986, after the discovery of the skull KNM WT 17000 by English anthropologist Alan Walker and Richard Leakey classified it into Paranthropus as P. aethiopicus . There is debate whether this

1258-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

1332-494: Is almost universally ignored, and is considered to be synonymous with P. aethiopicus . In 2015, Ethiopian palaeoanthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie and colleagues described the 3.5–3.2 Ma A. deyiremeda based on three jawbones from the Afar Region , Ethiopia. They noted that, though it shares many similarities with Paranthropus , it may not have been closely related because it lacked enlarged molars which characterize

1406-515: Is also known from these caves, their remains are comparatively scarce to Paranthropus , making Homo -attribution unlikely. The tools also cooccur with Homo -associated Oldawan and possibly Acheulian stone tool industries . The bone tools were typically sourced from the shaft of long bones from medium- to large-sized mammals, but tools made sourced from mandibles , ribs and horn cores have also been found. Bone tools have also been found at Oldawan Gorge and directly associated with P. boisei ,

1480-677: Is better at processing the starchy abrasive foods that likely made up the bulk of its diet. P. robustus may have chewed in a front-to-back direction instead, and had less exaggerated (less derived ) anatomical features than P. boisei as it perhaps did not require them with this kind of chewing strategy. This may have also allowed P. robustus to better process tougher foods. The braincase volume averaged about 500 cm (31 cu in), comparable to gracile australopithecines, but smaller than Homo . Modern human brain volume averages 1,270 cm (78 cu in) for men and 1,130 cm (69 cu in) for women. Unlike P. robustus ,

1554-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

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1628-520: Is possible that P. aethiopicus evolved even earlier, up to 3.3 mya, on the expansive Kenyan floodplains of the time. The oldest P. boisei remains date to about 2.3 mya from Malema , Malawi. P. boisei changed remarkably little over its nearly one-million-year existence. Paranthropus had spread into South Africa by 2 mya with the earliest P. robustus remains. It is sometimes suggested that Paranthropus and Homo are sister taxa , both evolving from Australopithecus . This may have occurred during

1702-439: Is similar to A. afarensis , but the hip joints are smaller in P. robustus . The physical similarity implies a similar walking gait. Their modern-humanlike big toe indicates a modern-humanlike foot posture and range of motion, but the more distal ankle joint would have inhibited the modern human toe-off gait cycle . By 1.8 mya, Paranthropus and H. habilis may have achieved about the same grade of bipedality. In comparison to

1776-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1850-431: Is synonymous with P. boisei , the main argument for separation being the skull seems less adapted for chewing tough vegetation. In 1989, palaeoartist and zoologist Walter Ferguson reclassified KNM WT 17000 into a new species, walkeri , because he considered the skull's species designation questionable as it comprised the skull whereas the holotype of P. aethiopicus comprised only the mandible. Ferguson's classification

1924-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1998-555: The Cradle of Humankind . In 1948, at Swartkrans Cave, in about the same vicinity as Kromdraai, Broom and South African palaeontologist John Talbot Robinson described P. crassidens based on a subadult jaw, SK 6. He believed later Paranthropus were morphologically distinct from earlier Paranthropus in the cave—that is, the Swartkrans Paranthropus were reproductively isolated from Kromdraai Paranthropus and

2072-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

2146-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

2220-751: The University of North Dakota where he developed an interest in literature, publishing Varsity verse: A selection of undergraduate poetry written at the University of North Dakota with P.B. Griffith in 1908. After graduation Boise found work with the Santa Rita Mining Company in New Mexico . He gained employment with Forminière in the Belgian Congo in 1911, directing the exploration, mining and research operations at

2294-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

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2368-482: The type species P. robustus . " Paranthropus " derives from Ancient Greek παρα para beside or alongside; and άνθρωπος ánthropos man. The type specimen , a male braincase, TM 1517 , was discovered by schoolboy Gert Terblanche at the Kromdraai fossil site , about 70 km (43 mi) southwest of Pretoria , South Africa. By 1988, at least six individuals were unearthed in around the same area, now known as

2442-473: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

2516-554: The Homa Peninsula in western Kenya. Stone tools called "oldowan toolkits" are used to pound and shape other rocks or plant materials. These tools are thought to be between 2.6 and 3 million years old. The stone tools were found near Paranthropus teeth. Bone tools dating between 2.3 and 0.6 mya have been found in abundance in Swartkrans, Kromdraai and Drimolen caves, and are often associated with P. robustus . Though Homo

2590-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

2664-667: The coast of East Africa, and "boisei", referring to their financial benefactor Charles Watson Boise . However, this genus was rejected at Mr. Leakey's presentation before the 4th Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, as it was based on a single specimen. The discovery of the Peninj Mandible made the Leakeys reclassify their species as Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei in 1964, but in 1967, South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias subsumed it into Australopithecus as A. boisei . However, as more specimens were found,

2738-586: The combination Paranthropus boisei became more popular. It is debated whether the wide range of variation in jaw size indicates simply sexual dimorphism or a grounds for identifying a new species. It could be explained as groundmass filling in cracks naturally formed after death, inflating the perceived size of the bone. P. boisei also has a notably wide range of variation in skull anatomy, but these features likely have no taxonomic bearing. In 1968, French palaeontologists Camille Arambourg and Yves Coppens described " Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus " based on

2812-812: The company's Kasai diamond fields. He received promotion to Chief Engineer of the company and remained in the region throughout the First World War . Boise led prospecting expeditions in Southern Africa in 1914 and published Diamond fields of German South West Africa in the South African Mining Journal in July 1915 and The Vaal River diggings in Griqualand West in the Mining Magazine in 1916. After

2886-421: The earliest evidence of fire usage. They typically inhabited woodlands, and coexisted with some early human species, namely A. africanus , H. habilis and H. erectus . They were preyed upon by the large carnivores of the time, specifically crocodiles, leopards, sabertoothed cats and hyenas. The genus Paranthropus was first erected by Scottish-South African palaeontologist Robert Broom in 1938, with

2960-505: The elevated levels of strontium compared to adults in teeth from Swartkrans Cave, which, in the area, was most likely sourced from tubers. Dentin exposure on juvenile teeth could indicate early weaning, or a more abrasive diet than adults which wore away the cementum and enamel coatings, or both. It is also possible juveniles were less capable of removing grit from dug-up food rather than purposefully seeking out more abrasive foods. Oldowan toolkits were uncovered at an excavation site on

3034-479: The end of the Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene . Paranthropus is characterised by robust skulls , with a prominent gorilla -like sagittal crest along the midline—which suggest strong chewing muscles—and broad, herbivorous teeth used for grinding. However, they likely preferred soft food over tough and hard food. Typically, Paranthropus species were generalist feeders, but while P. robustus

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3108-521: The entire tooth is consistent with the modern human ailment amelogenesis imperfecta . However, since circular holes in enamel coverage are uniform in size, only present on the molar teeth , and have the same severity across individuals, the PEH may have been a genetic condition. It is possible that the coding-DNA concerned with thickening enamel also left them more vulnerable to PEH. There have been 10 identified cases of cavities in P. robustus , indicating

3182-467: The forearms of P. boisei were heavily built, which might suggest habitual suspensory behaviour as in orangutans and gibbons . A P. boisei shoulder blade indicates long infraspinatus muscles , which is also associated with suspensory behavior. A P. aethiopicus ulna, on the other hand, shows more similarities to Homo than P. boisei . Paranthropus were bipeds , and their hips, legs and feet resemble A. afarensis and modern humans. The pelvis

3256-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

3330-533: The former eventually speciated . By 1988, several specimens from Swartkrans had been placed into P. crassidens . However, this has since been synonymised with P. robustus as the two populations do not seem to be very distinct. In 1959, P. boisei was discovered by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania (specimen OH 5 ). Her husband Louis named it Zinjanthropus boisei because he believed it differed greatly from Paranthropus and Australopithecus . The name derives from " Zinj ", an ancient Arabic word for

3404-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

3478-436: The genus is monophyletic —is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants—and the argument against monophyly (that the genus is paraphyletic ) says that P. robustus and P. boisei evolved similar gorilla-like heads independently of each other by coincidence ( convergent evolution ), as chewing adaptations in hominins evolve very rapidly and multiple times at various points in the family tree ( homoplasy ). In 1999,

3552-403: The genus. Nonetheless, in 2018, independent researcher Johan Nygren recommended moving it to Paranthropus based on dental and presumed dietary similarity. In 1951, American anthropologists Sherwood Washburn and Bruce D. Patterson were the first to suggest that Paranthropus should be considered a junior synonym of Australopithecus as the former was only known from fragmentary remains at

3626-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

3700-441: The large, robust head, the body was rather small. Average weight for P. robustus may have been 40 kg (88 lb) for males and 32 kg (71 lb) for females; and for P. boisei 50 kg (110 lb) for males and 34 kg (75 lb) for females. At Swartkrans Cave Members 1 and 2, about 35% of the P. robustus individuals are estimated to have weighed 28 kg (62 lb), 22% about 43 kg (95 lb), and

3774-453: The larger males of a group. The largest-known Paranthropus individual was estimated at 54 kg (119 lb). According to a 1991 study, based on femur length and using the dimensions of modern humans, male and female P. robustus are estimated to have stood on average 132 and 110 cm (4 ft 4 in and 3 ft 7 in), respectively, and P. boisei 137 and 124 cm (4 ft 6 in and 4 ft 1 in). However,

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3848-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

3922-627: The latter estimates are problematic as there were no positively identified male P. boisei femurs at the time. In 2013, a 1.34 Ma male P. boisei partial skeleton was estimated to be at least 156 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 50 kg (110 lb). Paranthropus seems to have had notably high rates of pitting enamel hypoplasia (PEH), where tooth enamel formation is spotty instead of mostly uniform. In P. robustus , about 47% of baby teeth and 14% of adult teeth were affected, in comparison to about 6.7% and 4.3%, respectively, in any other tested hominin species. The condition of these holes covering

3996-509: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Charles Watson Boise Charles Watson Boise (November 9, 1884 – November 15, 1964) was an American-born naturalised British mining engineer. Born in Lakota, North Dakota on November 9, 1884, his family soon moved to Hope where he spent his formative years. Boise attended

4070-401: The marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates will not be entirely accurate. Paranthropus had pronounced sexual dimorphism , with males notably larger than females, which is commonly correlated with a male-dominated polygamous society. P. robustus may have had

4144-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

4218-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

4292-632: The nickname "Nutcracker Man". However, like gorillas, Paranthropus likely preferred soft foods, but would consume tough or hard food during leaner times, and the powerful jaws were used only in the latter situation. In P. boisei , thick enamel was more likely used to resist abrasive gritty particles rather than to minimize chipping while eating hard foods. In fact, there is a distinct lack of tooth fractures which would have resulted from such activity. Paranthropus were generalist feeders, but diet seems to have ranged dramatically with location. The South African P. robustus appears to have been an omnivore, with

4366-531: The other hand, seems to have been largely herbivorous and fed on C4 plants. Its powerful jaws allowed it to consume a wide variety of different plants, though it may have largely preferred nutrient-rich bulbotubers as these are known to thrive in the well-watered woodlands it is thought to have inhabited. Feeding on these, P. boisei may have been able to meet its daily caloric requirements of approximately 9,700 kJ after about 6 hours of foraging. Juvenile P. robustus may have relied more on tubers than adults, given

4440-491: The ponds at Emmetts in the 1930s. He left the gardens to the National Trust after his death. Boise financed an anthropological expedition led by Louis Leakey to Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania in 1959. Leakey's wife, Mary Leakey , discovered a fossil cranium of an unknown species on July 17, 1959. It turned out to be the first known specimen of an early hominin species which she named Zinjanthropus boisei after

4514-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

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4588-431: The remaining 43% bigger than the former but less than 54 kg (119 lb). At Member 3, all individuals were about 45 kg (99 lb). Female weight was about the same in contemporaneous H. erectus , but male H. erectus were on average 13 kg (28.7 lb) heavier than P. robustus males. P. robustus sites are oddly dominated by small adults, which could be explained as heightened predation or mortality of

4662-399: The skull to resist large bite loads while feeding, namely the expansive squamosal sutures . The notably thick palate was once thought to have been an adaptation to resist a high bite force, but is better explained as a byproduct of facial lengthening and nasal anatomy. In P. boisei , the jaw hinge was adapted to grinding food side-to-side (rather than up-and-down in modern humans), which

4736-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

4810-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

4884-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

4958-470: The teeth due to preparation with simple tools. Burnt bones were also associated with the inhabitants of Swartkrans, which could indicate some of the earliest fire usage. However, these bones were found in Member 3, where Paranthropus remains are rarer than H. erectus , and it is also possible the bones were burned in a wildfire and washed into the cave as it is known the bones were not burned onsite. Given

5032-428: The time, and dental differences were too minute to serve as justification. In face of calls for subsumation, Leakey and Robinson continued defending its validity. Various other authors were still unsure until more complete remains were found. Paranthropus is sometimes classified as a subgenus of Australopithecus . There is currently no clear consensus on the validity of Paranthropus . The argument rests upon whether

5106-539: The troop from predators in the more exposed environment, much like savanna baboons . Further, among primates, delayed maturity is also exhibited in the rhesus monkey which has a multi-male society, and may not be an accurate indicator of social structure. Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

5180-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

5254-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

5328-790: The war Boise established himself in London as a diamond mining consultant. In 1920 he made the first investigation of the diamond fields of the Gold Coast which led to the founding of the Consolidated African Selection Trust . He was also involved with opening the diamond fields in Sierra Leone and the exploration of Northern Rhodesia for copper, which resulted in the creation of the Rhodesian Selection Trust . In 1926 he applied for

5402-399: The youngest dating to 1.34 mya, though a great proportion of other bone tools from here have ambiguous attribution. Stone tools from Kromdraai could possibly be attributed to P. robustus , as no Homo have been found there yet. The bone tools were not manufactured or purposefully shaped for a task. However, since the bones display no weathering (and were not scavenged randomly), and there is

5476-765: Was likely an omnivore , P. boisei seems to have been herbivorous, possibly preferring abundant bulbotubers . Paranthropoids were bipeds . Despite their robust heads, they had comparatively small bodies. Average weight and height are estimated to be 40 kg (88 lb) at 132 cm (4 ft) for P. robustus males, 50 kg (110 lb) at 137 cm (4 ft 6 in) for P. boisei males, 32 kg (71 lb) at 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) for P. robustus females, and 34 kg (75 lb) at 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) for P. boisei females. They were possibly polygamous and patrilocal , but there are no modern analogues for australopithecine societies. They are associated with bone tools and contested as

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