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101-592: The negotiations that led to the accord began in 1968, after various lengthy delays. As a result of the accord, the International Control Commission (ICC) was replaced by the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS), which consisted of Canada , Poland , Hungary , and Indonesia , to monitor the agreement. The main negotiators of the agreement were U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and

202-546: A college professor, college president, and publisher of Harlow's Weekly, which focused on Oklahoma political, social and economic issues. Bryce graduated from the University of Oklahoma in 1936 at age 19, followed by two years of graduate work in government at the University of Texas at Austin and the University of Oklahoma. He then went to Washington, D.C. , where he served on Capitol Hill as assistant librarian of

303-689: A congressional liaison office in the White House and appointed Wilton B. Persons as its head. Persons suggested Bryce Harlow join the staff, and Eisenhower was enthusiastic. Harlow resisted at first, wanting to stay in Oklahoma, but after a personal call from the President, he decided to accept. He was soon writing speeches for the President and went on to hold a variety of titles in the White House through Eisenhower's two terms. Harlow also wrote campaign speeches for Richard M. Nixon in 1960, but Nixon

404-464: A continuous period of nearly two decades from they early 1950s to the early 1970s, and indeed beyond, under a slightly altered guise. They needed to commute between the two hostile capitals as the Cold War between them, and in the wider world, became considerably more heated. They also needed to travel to the other two capitals: Phnom Penh and Vientiane . No scheduled airline operated such a route: it

505-516: A final draft. Kissinger held a press conference in Washington during which he announced that "peace is at hand." When Thiệu, who had not even been informed of the secret negotiations, was presented with the draft of the new agreement, he was furious with Kissinger and Nixon (who were perfectly aware of South Vietnam's negotiating position) and refused to accept it without significant changes. He then made several public radio addresses, claiming that

606-566: A full battalion of infantry, 2nd Bn. the Guards Regiment , as security for the subordinate headquarters and as an operational reserve. In addition, the Indian Army's Corps of Signals established and manned the communications network between the field teams and the headquarters, and linked the capitals, of the three, or rather the four, countries. The following figures probably represent the maximum effort, around 24 March 1955, during

707-480: A government the NLF had failed to overthrow by force of arms, though the extent of North Vietnamese demands is contested. Historian Marilyn B. Young , contends that the contents of Hanoi's proposal were systematically distorted from their original plea to permit Thiệu's replacement, to what Kissinger propagated as a demand for his overthrow. On May 8, 1972, Nixon made a major concession to North Vietnam by announcing that

808-663: A little under 2,000 each. In addition to the figures for the formal Delegations, there might be considered the largely-French crews of the ICC/CIC air element; the formal, largely-military, local Liaison Missions to the ICC, and the informal locally employed civilian (LEC) ancillary staff. The ICC/ICSC was authorised to monitor observance of the Geneva Accords anywhere in the former French Indochina (FIC). As such, they were entitled to travel between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City for

909-713: A lot of people. According to the original accords, the separation of the regions was to be the end of the International Control Commission. However, members of the commission looked at the country and decided that it was in the best interest of all involved for it to continue. Tensions between the North and the South were running high, and while neither group were very big fans of the International Control Commission, both preferred talking to it than to their counterparts. The Joint Commission disbanded, leaving

1010-587: A minor and not uncommon practice, quite different from getting and reporting real secrets." Nixon asked prominent Chinese-American politician Anna Chennault to be his "channel to Mr. Thieu "; Chennault agreed and periodically reported to John Mitchell that Thieu had no intention of attending a peace conference. On November 2, Chennault informed the South Vietnamese ambassador: "I have just heard from my boss in Albuquerque who says his boss [Nixon]

1111-442: A minor speed bump for either side. The states that sat on the commission were secondary powers, at best, never large enough to have a major impact on world affairs during the Cold War, in comparison to the two superpowers. In addition, they were sitting on a fault line between the two major powers that had been fighting not ten years earlier. What had begun as a ceasefire quickly became a battlefield as tensions continued to flair. After

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1212-400: A permanent split between the two sides. However, there was little hope in anyone's mind that the elections would actually happen after the two years of increased tension between the two Vietnams and the international community as a whole. By the time that the election was set to take place, even the International Control Commission was unexcited by the premise. As such, when the proposed date for

1313-533: A position to launch the successful offensive that ended South Vietnam's status as an independent country. Fighting began almost immediately after the agreement was signed, due to a series of mutual retaliations, and by March 1973, full-fledged war had resumed. Nixon had secretly promised Thiệu that he would use airpower to support the South Vietnamese government should it be necessary. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger

1414-519: A rectangular table was acceptable, for only a rectangle could show two distinct sides to the conflict. Eventually a compromise was reached, in which representatives of the northern and southern governments would sit at a circular table, with members representing all other parties sitting at individual square tables around them. Bryce Harlow , a former White House staff member in the Eisenhower administration, claimed to have "a double agent working in

1515-547: A single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until the elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated the model of three national delegations. The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative . Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland

1616-505: Is going to win. And you tell your boss [Thieu] to hold on a while longer." Johnson found out through the NSA and was enraged saying that Nixon had "blood on his hands" and that Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen agreed with Johnson that such action was "treason." Defense Secretary Clark Clifford considered the moves an illegal violation of the Logan Act . In response, Johnson ordered

1717-613: The North Vietnamese Politburo member Lê Đức Thọ . Both men were awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts, but Lê Đức Thọ refused to accept it. The agreement's provisions were immediately and frequently broken by both North and South Vietnamese forces with no official response from the United States. Open fighting broke out in March 1973, and North Vietnamese offensives enlarged their territory by

1818-880: The Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1977. In 1981, President Reagan awarded him the Medal of Freedom . In 1990, the Fund for American Studies established the Bryce Harlow Institute on Business and Government Affairs, a summer program at Georgetown University . In 1982, the Bryce Harlow Foundation was established. The Foundation has awarded the Bryce Harlow Award to an individual who has worked to advance business-government relations and "whose integrity, dedication and professionalism echo

1919-511: The People's Army of Vietnam in the North and the other controlled by the French Union in the South. The regions would go on to be colloquially known as North and South Vietnam . As part of the treaty, the division was given 300 days in which to occur and was overseen by the International Control Commission. The first and likely most important duty of the International Control Commission

2020-670: The U.S. Congress in June 1973, prohibited further U.S. military activity in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia unless the president secured Congressional approval in advance. However, during this time, Nixon was being driven from office due to the Watergate scandal , which led to his resignation in 1974. When the North Vietnamese began their final offensive early in 1975, the U.S. Congress refused to appropriate increased military assistance for South Vietnam, citing strong opposition to

2121-451: The U.S. House of Representatives and then as an aide to Congressman Wesley Disney . In 1940, he joined the army reserve, and in July 1941, he was placed on active duty as an officer in the public information office of Army Chief of Staff Gen. George C. Marshall . He then served as the army's congressional liaison under Wilton B. Persons . He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. After

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2222-534: The Geneva Agreements, but the lack of power invested in the International Control Commission meant that it was completely unable to prevent even that. It could do no more than write a sternly worded report on 13 February 1965. It stated that the US had violated the Geneva Agreements and that there were growing conflicts between the two sides. However, there was no response from the international community and so

2323-477: The ICSC/ICC/CIC altered considerably over the two decades of its existence. It began, with great expectations, as a large force, covering the whole territory. As conditions on the ground altered, and hopes foundered, the numbers were scaled back considerably and most regional offices closed, until the organisation was reduced mostly to two representative offices, in the respective capitals. This remained largely

2424-659: The Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate. Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as a single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until

2525-405: The International Control Commission experienced during its operations was a lack of manpower and transportation. For the International Control Commission to function properly as a check on the two Vietnams, it would have to travel throughout the region with impunity to look for signs of growing tension or violations of "democratic liberties" but would have to be able to catch the states unaware. If it

2626-407: The International Control Commission in a position where it was unsure of its own powers. The main reason to remain in Vietnam was to ensure that the tenuous peace held. While the commission was there, there was still the hope of its final job being carried out: holding an election. The election to unify Vietnam was to be held two years after the separation attempt to reach a longer peace and to prevent

2727-409: The International Control Commission may have settled the cases, the governments of the respective sides did little to enforce them and most cases were not helped by the International Control Commission. The rest were settled reasonably fairly, and the International Control Commission is well regarded for its work during this period. It may not have been able to help with every case, but it managed to help

2828-413: The International Control Commission to do to enforce their views except complaining to what was quickly becoming an empty room. The commission was expected to police two states and ensure a full peace between the global superpowers, a daunting task for the entire world during the period, let alone a commission. As such, the power of the International Control Commission drained away during this period until it

2929-487: The International Control Commission was the inferior Commission, and was given little actual power to affect politics in the region. Instead, it was simply given power to conduct studies and write reports on what was happening on the ground in Vietnam and return the information to the Joint Council which would make policy decisions. The Joint Council could request the opinion of the International Control Commission, but

3030-402: The International Control Commission. In addition, when the global superpowers looked to act through the states, the International Control Commission could not respond either, as the international community needed to defer to the superpowers, giving the International Control Commission few ways to influence anything. Without any actual power or backing of the global superpowers, there was little for

3131-406: The International Control Commission. It was a regulatory board with no ability to regulate the one thing it was supposed to. As such, it drifted further and further into ridicule in the eyes of the world. Another major and far more tangible difficulty that the International Control Commission ran into was a severe lack of funds. The commission was funded by the various states that composed it, but it

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3232-541: The Nixon administration to withdraw from the war. Consequently, the U.S. brought great diplomatic pressure upon their South Vietnamese ally to sign the agreement even if the concessions Thiệu wanted could not be achieved. Nixon pledged to provide continued substantial aid to South Vietnam and given his recent landslide victory in the presidential election, it seemed possible that he would be able to follow through on that pledge. To demonstrate his seriousness to Thiệu, Nixon ordered

3333-516: The North Vietnamese government agreed to resume "technical" discussions with the United States, Nixon ordered a halt to bombings north of the 20th parallel on December 30. With the U.S. committed to disengagement (and after threats from Nixon that South Vietnam would be abandoned if he did not agree), Thiệu had little choice but to accede. On January 15, 1973, Nixon announced a suspension of offensive actions against North Vietnam. Kissinger and Thọ met again on January 23 and signed off on an agreement that

3434-555: The North the International Control Commission was unable to observe violations of the arms control stipulation but never able to maintain adequate inspection to be assured that no violations were taking place. In the South, the struggle was with the indifference and reluctance of the authorities and the persistent effort of the Americans to press the terms of the Agreement farther than they could properly be stretched. The violations in

3535-409: The South that the North was blocking immigration. In total, the deadline was actually extended a full month to allow additional people to travel, despite British, Canadian, and commission pressure to extend it further. While the process is not well remembered and had its share of issues, there is little doubt it was a success. In addition to the sheer logistical problems of moving the numbers of people,

3636-502: The South were, needless to say, observable, and the attitude of the Americans was negative but decent. The Commission was in a position to prove Southern but not Northern violations. The Southerners and Americans inevitably complained and increasingly insisted that the known if not proved disregard of the arms control provisions by the Communists not only justified by made essential their doing likewise." That difficulty further reduced

3737-406: The U.S. would accept a cease-fire in place as a precondition for its military withdrawal. In other words, the U.S. would withdraw its forces from South Vietnam without North Vietnam doing the same. The concession broke a deadlock and resulted in progress in the talks over the next few months. The final major breakthrough came on October 8, 1972. Prior to this, North Vietnam had been disappointed by

3838-482: The White House but on an astute analyst's insight into what was happening." CIA intelligence analyst William Bundy stated that Kissinger obtained "no useful inside information" from his trip to Paris, and "almost any experienced Hanoi watcher might have come to the same conclusion". While Kissinger may have "hinted that his advice was based on contacts with the Paris delegation," this sort of "self-promotion...is at worst

3939-557: The White House....I kept Nixon informed." Harlow and Henry Kissinger (who was friendly with both campaigns and guaranteed a job in either a Humphrey or Nixon administration in the upcoming election) separately predicted Johnson's "bombing halt". Democratic senator George Smathers informed President Johnson that "the word is out that we are making an effort to throw the election to Humphrey. Nixon has been told of it". According to presidential historian Robert Dallek , Kissinger's advice "rested not on special knowledge of decision making at

4040-531: The agreement did not occur at the Peace Conference at all but were carried out during secret negotiations between Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ, which began on August 4, 1969. North Vietnam insisted for three years that the agreement could not be concluded unless the United States agreed to remove South Vietnamese President Thiệu from power and replace him with someone more acceptable to Hanoi. Nixon and Kissinger were unwilling to sign an agreement to overthrow

4141-402: The agreement's provisions were routinely flouted by both the North Vietnamese and the South Vietnamese government, eliciting no response from the United States, and ultimately resulting in the communists enlarging the area under their control by the end of 1973. North Vietnamese military forces gradually built up their military infrastructure in the areas they controlled and two years later were in

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4242-535: The case, until the Paris Accords, and the brief revival as the ICCS. Initially, the participant nations were prepared to commit a significant number of diplomats and military personnel to the project. India, as lead-nation, was determined to ensure adequate security measures and from its own very recent history had bitter experience of how fraught the task of Partition and population transfer could be. It deployed

4343-526: The chief communist powers, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China , who were backing the North Vietnamese military effort. In a meeting with Kissinger, Thọ significantly modified his bargaining line, allowing that the Saigon government could remain in power and that negotiations between the two South Vietnamese parties could develop a final settlement. Within 10 days the secret talks drew up

4444-598: The commission had to worry about the treatment of citizens who would not or could not move. Officially, there was a requirement by the Geneva Agreement that all citizens would be granted "democratic liberties" While there was no official definition as to the meaning of this phrase, it is likely that it refers to Lockean ideals. In this case, however, it more specifically refers to the right to live without fear of government reprisals. However, there were two radically different groups that had been at war for years. That

4545-802: The communists were also victorious in Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh on April 17, as were the Pathet Lao in Laos successful in capturing Vientiane on December 2. Like Saigon, U.S. civilian and military personnel were evacuated from Phnom Penh , U.S. diplomatic presence in Vientiane was significantly downgraded, and the number of remaining U.S. personnel was severely reduced. According to Finnish historian Jussi Hanhimäki , due to triangular diplomacy which isolated it, South Vietnam

4646-527: The conflict, as it was unable to negotiate peace as the tensions grew into full-blown war and its role became more and more vestigial in the face of regional politics. Professor Mieczysław Maneli , head of the Polish delegation to the ICC, defected to the United States in 1968. The International Control Commission did not outlive the Vietnam War. Their fall came from an unlikely source, with India, one of

4747-472: The delegations headed by Xuân Thuỷ , who would remain the official leader of the North Vietnamese delegation throughout the process, and U.S. ambassador-at-large W. Averell Harriman . For five months, the negotiations stalled as North Vietnam demanded that all bombing of North Vietnam be stopped, while the U.S. side demanded that North Vietnam agree to a reciprocal de-escalation in South Vietnam; it

4848-623: The diplomats or military personnel from all three delegations, plus the French crew of the civil aircraft that was on contract to the ICC. As with other international peacekeeping and monitoring missions, such as the UN , the ICC/ICSC issued a medal to recognise the service of its members in what was becoming an increasingly active war-zone. The medal was issued on standard terms of 90 days service, unless prevented by injury or death in service. The medal

4949-423: The elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated the model of three national delegations. The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative . Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and

5050-513: The elections, 21 July 1956, occurred, there was no surprise when they, in fact, did not happen. However, the International Control Commission was able to hold the two sides in check for years in a shaky peace that otherwise would have likely descended into conflict almost immediately. Despite still existing, the Commission quickly found itself with few friends and fewer powers. It was unable to control much of anything or act as anything beyond

5151-563: The end of the year. Two years later, a massive North Vietnamese offensive conquered South Vietnam on April 30, 1975 , and the two countries, which had been separated since 1954, united once more on July 2, 1976, as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Part of the negotiations took place in the former residence of the French painter Fernand Léger ; it was bequeathed to the French Communist Party . The street of

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5252-478: The escalation of war-fighting throughout the 1960s, the remaining helicopters were sold back to the former operator, with most being passed on to the Royal Lao Air Force. The ICC operated in three, or arguably four, separate but inter-connected war-zones. The field teams made inspections around the four countries of the former French Indochina (FIC), usually well-heralded and with an armed escort from

5353-479: The first two years, when the active partitioning ended and the two Vietnamese governments became more and more comfortable in their ability to rule, they also became closer and closer to their respective patrons, the North to the Soviet Union and the South to the United States. That relationship to the larger powers allowed the developing states to take bigger risks and care less and less about the condemnation of

5454-485: The governments of the regions would be able to guarantee this freedom was unlikely, to say the least. To answer this problem, the International Control Commission created the Freedoms Committee to answer the concerns of anyone who submitted a claim that their democratic liberties had been violated. In total, the committee heard 17,397 cases under the rules over the course of the 300 days of the relocation. While

5555-539: The heavy Operation Linebacker II bombings of North Vietnam in December 1972. Nixon also attempted to bolster South Vietnam's military forces by ordering that large quantities of U.S. military material and equipment be given to South Vietnam from May to December 1972 under Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus . These operations were also designed to keep North Vietnam at the negotiating table and to prevent them from abandoning negotiations and seeking total victory. When

5656-464: The height of population transfer: Overall totals are difficult to calculate, due to the long duration of the mission and due to the considerable changes in its duties and organisation during the near two decades of its existence. The Indian military contribution overall has been estimated to be as follows: However, even this figure appears to exclude the Indian civil diplomatic contingent. The overall figures for Canada and for Poland would appear to be

5757-600: The house was named after Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque , who had commanded French forces in Vietnam after the Second World War . The agreement called for: Following the strong showing of anti-war candidate Eugene McCarthy in the New Hampshire primary , in March 1968 U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson halted bombing operations over the northern portion of North Vietnam ( Operation Rolling Thunder ), in order to encourage Hanoi (the perceived locus of

5858-410: The impact of the International Control Commission, preventing it from performing its duties, and putting into question its existence. That it could not reach the North was a problem since it was it sworn duty to maintain "democratic liberties" and put a stop to any kind of growing threats to violence. The inability to patrol regularly allowed the North to build whatever it wanted, as there was no threat of

5959-622: The implementation of the Geneva Accords that ended the First Indochina War and brought about the Partition of Vietnam . It monitored the observance of the ceasefires and noted any violations. The organization consisted of delegations of diplomats and military personnel from: Canada , Poland , and India , representing respectively the non-communist , communist , and non-aligned blocs. The ICC/ICSC started well, but

6060-465: The institution in the modern world, meant that in March 1973, the International Control Commission formally shut down and was replaced by the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS). Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as a single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until the elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated

6161-606: The insurgency) to begin negotiations. Although some sources state that the bombing halt decision announced on March 31, 1968, was related to events occurring within the White House and the Presidents counsel of Secretary of Defense Clark Clifford and others rather than the events in New Hampshire. Shortly thereafter, Hanoi agreed to discuss a complete halt of the bombing, and a date was set for representatives of both parties to meet in Paris. The sides first met on May 10, with

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6262-423: The international community stopping it because the ICC has no actual way of enforcing order. The lack of respect from the North led to it losing the ability to police the South, which is the great tragedy of the region. With the North so far away and difficult to control, any attempt to do its job in the South was met with cries of a double standard. While that was technically true, it showed the inherent issues with

6363-416: The irreconcilable positions soon told, and the organisation became largely irrelevant in the face of an increasingly-active conflict. Nevertheless, it survived, as a communications link, until the Paris Accords were signed and it was reconvened as the International Commission for Control and Supervision . The International Control Commission was created to apply the Geneva Accords, a treaty signed as part of

6464-466: The key member states of the International Control Commission normalizing relations with North but not South Vietnam. That insulted the South Vietnamese and they forced the Indians and, by extension, all of the International Control Commission out of the country. While the Commission tried to function from Hanoi, it became much harder to regulate South Vietnam. That, coupled with the general pointlessness of

6565-603: The legitimacy of the NLF. Harriman resolved this dispute by developing a system by which North Vietnam and U.S. would be the named parties; NLF officials could join the North Vietnam team without being recognized by South Vietnam, while Saigon's representatives joined their U.S. allies. A similar debate concerned the shape of the table to be used at the conference. The North favored a circular table, in which all parties, including NLF representatives, would appear to be "equal"' in importance. The South Vietnamese argued that only

6666-484: The livery but dropped the airline name, having CIC inscribed on the stabilizer instead. These included: The original 3 aircraft were: In 1962, the Laos Accords declared the neutrality of Laos, and the undercover war that had been waged in the country needed to be scaled back. The ICC/CIC were therefore able to buy up a number of surplus helicopters from operator Air America for their own work in monitoring

6767-507: The local military, though this would often negate the value of such inspections. Nevertheless, all three delegations lost personnel as a direct result of their ICC service. The worst single incident was probably the loss of aircraft F-BELV, in the Laos-North Vietnam border area, on 18 October 1965. Some 13 people were lost and, to date, neither aircraft remains, nor bodies have retrieved or even located. The thirteen people comprised

6868-406: The model of three national delegations. The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative . Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of

6969-499: The new Accords. After the initial purchase of four Sikorsky H-34 , an additional two were added the following year. The fleet was in operation for about five years, though some aircraft were apparently still flying in 1969. The fleet was based in Vientiane and the crews were mostly French, though the former operator remained responsible for the maintenance and some of the former US pilots were apparently also contracted: Attempts to maintain neutrality in Laos were unsuccessful and with

7070-414: The operations of releasing prisoners of war and civilian internees. (d) Supervise at ports and airfields as well as along all frontiers of Viet-Nam the execution of the provisions of the agreement on the cessation of hostilities, regulating the introduction into the country of armed forces, military personnel and of all kinds of arms, munitions and war material." The treaty makes it quite clear that in fact

7171-413: The power and reputation of the International Control Commission fell further. Despite its growing irrelevance, the International Control Commission attempted to hang on as a moderating voice in the conflict. It made several attempts to bring the two sides closer together and to start a dialogue but its efforts came to naught. That lack of effect was to be endemic of the International Control Commission during

7272-403: The proposed agreement was worse than it actually was. Hanoi was flabbergasted, believing that it had been duped into a propaganda ploy by Kissinger. On October 26, Radio Hanoi broadcast key details of the draft agreement. However, as U.S. casualties had mounted throughout the conflict since 1965, American domestic support for the war had deteriorated, and by late 1972 there was major pressure on

7373-488: The region and to ensure that the terms of the treaty are followed. Specifically, the treaty discussed four primary duties of the International Control Commission: "(a) Control the movement of the armed forces of the two parties, effected within the framework of the regroupment plan. (b) Supervise the demarcation lines between the re-grouping areas, and also the demilitarized zones. (c) Control

7474-559: The removal of Vietnam from the French Empire. However, while both were created in the same treaty, the International Control Commission is distinct from the Joint Commission. It was the duty of the Joint Commission to actually oversee the ceasefire in the region and to ensure the peace, as well as to act as the adjudicator in all issues relating to the peace. It was the duty of the International Control Commission to oversee

7575-520: The results of its Nguyen Hue Offensive (known in the West as the Easter Offensive ), which had resulted in the United States countering with "Operation Linebacker," a significant air bombing campaign that blunted the North's drive in the South as well as inflicting damage in the North. Also, they feared increased isolation if Nixon's efforts at détente significantly improved U.S. relations with

7676-423: The same type, for ease of maintenance & spares: the prewar-vintage Boeing 307 Stratoliner , the first pressurized airliner to enter service. Although the operator was essentially the same company throughout the two decades, spin-offs and mergers meant the aircraft could be seen, at various times, under several different operator names, and in several different liveries. Aircraft in regular ICC service often kept

7777-412: The time of his retirement, he was called the "unofficial dean of Washington corporate representatives." He continued to be active in presidential politics and took leaves of absence from Procter & Gamble to work with Nixon from 1968 to 1971 and again from 1973 to 1974. After assisting with Nixon's successful presidential campaign in 1968, he was one of Nixon's first White House appointees, starting with

7878-559: The title of assistant to the president for legislative and congressional affairs. Before long Harlow was elevated to counselor to the president with cabinet rank. Harlow later served as an informal advisor to Presidents Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan . Harlow received many honors. In 1960, he received the Minuteman Award, the highest honor of the Reserve Officers Association . He was inducted into

7979-463: The war by Americans and the loss of American equipment to the North by retreating Southern forces. Thiệu subsequently resigned, accusing the U.S. of betrayal in a TV and radio address: At the time of the peace agreement the United States agreed to only replace equipment on a one-by-one basis. But the United States did not keep its word. Is an American's word reliable these days? The United States did not keep its promise to help us fight for freedom and it

8080-635: The war, Harlow returned to Oklahoma City twice to serve as vice president of Harlow Publishing Company in 1946–47 and 1951–52, but both times, he was recruited back to positions in Washington. In 1947, he joined the staff of the House Armed Services Committee, and in 1948, he became the head of the staff. In 1950, he became disenchanted with the Democratic Party and switched his registration to Republican. In 1953, newly elected President Dwight D. Eisenhower established

8181-406: The wire-tapping of members of the Nixon campaign. Dallek wrote that Nixon's efforts "probably made no difference" because Thieu was unwilling to attend the talks and there was little chance of an agreement being reached before the election; however, his use of information provided by Harlow and Kissinger was morally questionable, and vice president Humphrey's decision not to make Nixon's actions public

8282-464: The work and life of the late Bryce Harlow." Recent recipients of the award have included Senators Mark Warner , Joseph Lieberman , Jon Kyl , Rob Portman , and Daniel Inouye . The Bryce Harlow Foundation also promotes integrity in professional advocacy through workshops and advocacy forums at educational institutions in Washington, D.C. The foundation selects approximately twenty part-time Washington, D.C. area graduate students each year to receive

8383-485: Was "an uncommon act of political decency." After winning the 1968 presidential election , Richard Nixon became president of the U.S. in January 1969. He then replaced U.S. ambassador Harriman with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. , who was later replaced by David Bruce . Also that year, the NLF set up a Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) to gain government status at the talks. However, the primary negotiations that led to

8484-490: Was "pressurized into accepting an agreement that virtually ensured its collapse". During negotiations, Kissinger stated that the United States would not intervene militarily 18 months after an agreement, but that it might intervene before that. In Vietnam War historiography, this has been termed the " decent interval ". International Control Commission The International Control Commission (abbreviated ICC ; French : Commission Internationale de Contrôle , or CIC ),

8585-409: Was an extremely low priority during the Cold War. As such, donations would frequently be late or simply never arrive. There was a rise in operating expenses as the Joint Commission disbanded and the International Control Commission was forced to take on greater responsibility and the financial straits. That led to further inability to operate and reduced its power in the region. A third major difficulty

8686-427: Was an international force established in 1954. More formally called the International Commission for Supervision and Control , the organisation was actually organised as three separate but interconnected bodies, one for each territory within the former French Indochina , being treated as a single state having two temporary administrations: the ICSC for Vietnam; the ICSC for Laos; and the ICSC for Cambodia. It oversaw

8787-409: Was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of the Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate. The organisation of

8888-593: Was basically identical to the draft of three months earlier. The agreement was signed by the leaders of the official delegations on January 27, 1973, at the Hotel Majestic in Paris. The Paris Peace Accords effectively removed the U.S. from the conflict in Vietnam. Prisoners from both sides were exchanged, with American ones primarily released during Operation Homecoming . Around 31,961 North Vietnamese/VC prisoners (26,880 military, 5,081 civilians) were released in return for 5,942 South Vietnamese prisoners. However,

8989-441: Was defeated by John F. Kennedy . In 1961, Harlow was hired by Procter & Gamble to create their first governmental relations office in Washington, D.C. His connection with the company was through Neil H. McElroy , former Procter & Gamble president and now chairman, who had served as Eisenhower's Secretary of Defense. Harlow was the company's main representative to Congress and federal agencies until his retirement in 1978. At

9090-451: Was free to not consider it. However, the lack of governing power was not well known by the public, and the International Control Commission would fall under attack for its perceived lack of leadership in the region when in reality, it was unable to serve the role people expected. The first action of the International Control Commission, as stipulated by the treaty was to separate the state of Vietnam into two separate zones, one controlled by

9191-482: Was in government convoys. While that was safer and cheaper for the International Control Commission, it lost that crucial element of surprise. That further reduced its impact in the region and made it even more ephemeral. By far the biggest blow to the International Control Commission is the growing military presence of the United States during the 1960s that would ultimately escalate into the Vietnam War. The troops and military supplies brought in were in clear defiance of

9292-473: Was in the same fight that the United States lost 50,000 of its young men. Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese army on April 30, 1975. Schlesinger had announced early in the morning of April 29 the beginning of Operation Frequent Wind , which entailed the evacuation of the last U.S. diplomatic, military and civilian personnel from Saigon via helicopter, which was completed in the early morning hours of April 30. Not only did North Vietnam conquer South Vietnam, but

9393-430: Was little more than a figurehead, able to state its opinions but little more in the region. That was seen most pointedly in arms traffic, which was strictly limited under the terms of the Geneva Agreements. However, after the successful separation and the growth of superpower influence, trafficking became a much more important factor. The means of and the response to the issue is seen in this quote from John Holms: "...in

9494-495: Was neither commercially viable to do so, nor safe to do so, whether in topographical terms or in military terms. The only realistic answer was to charter their own air fleet. As part of its agreement to pay for its disengagement from Empire in the Far East, France agreed to provide and fund the air-transport for the ICC. The result was a small fleet of three increasingly obsolete aircraft, with French crews. The aircraft were all of

9595-589: Was not until October 31 that Johnson agreed to end the air strikes and serious negotiations could begin. One of the largest hurdles to effective negotiation was the fact that North Vietnam and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or Viet Cong ) in the South, refused to recognize the government of South Vietnam; with equal persistence, the government in Saigon refused to acknowledge

9696-465: Was planned and designed by India; it was produced in Bangalore . India had gained its own independence less than a decade before the formation of the ICC and was the lead-nation of the project, by command and by numbers, and was proud to commemorate its active leadership in of the developing Non-Aligned Movement . When the idea was presented to its colleagues, the reaction was less than ecstatic: Canada

9797-471: Was sharply criticized by some senators after he stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam, but by August 15, 1973, 95% of American troops and their allies had left Vietnam (both North and South) as well as Cambodia and Laos under the Case-Church Amendment . The amendment, which was approved by

9898-470: Was the relocation itself. Many people wanted to move, and the manpower and resources that it took were tremendous. In all, 897,149 people were moved from one half of Vietnam to the other, 892,876 from north to south, and 4,269 from south to north. The movement was largely successful, despite feelings on both sides. The largest complaint from the North was that the South was distributing untrue and derogatory propaganda in an attempt to get people to emigrate and in

9999-407: Was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of the Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate. Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as

10100-504: Was thinking of issuing its own national peacekeeping or general service medal and was therefore hesitant, and Poland was equally non-committal. Bryce Harlow Bryce Nathaniel Harlow (August 11, 1916 – February 18, 1987) was an American congressional staff member, army officer, advisor to U.S. presidents, and corporate lobbyist . He was born in 1916 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma , the son of Victor E. Harlow, who had served as

10201-400: Was unable to do so, it would be trivial for one of the sides to hide any evidence of misconduct from the International Control Commission. However, money issues made the International Control Commission unable to maintain a fleet of cars to allow it to travel on its own, and the growing distrust between the two states made it more and more dangerous to travel. As such, the only safe way to travel

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