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101-705: However, a majority of Members of Parliament (MPs) called for the act to be revived in October 2005, when the issue of separation of powers was ignited in the Dewan Rakyat by opposition leader Lim Kit Siang of the Democratic Action Party (DAP). Earlier, Minister in the Prime Minister's Department in charge of parliamentary affairs, Nazri Aziz had announced the setting up of the post of Head of Administration for Parliament and (varyingly)

202-563: A mass party said to represent the citizens . While other forms of European dictatorship were dissolved after World War II , communism was strengthened and became the basis of several dictatorships in Eastern Europe . Communist states became the primary model for autocratic government in the late-20th century, and many non-communist autocratic regimes replicated the communist style of government. The decline in autocracy across Western Europe affected autocratic government elsewhere in

303-588: A "merely symbolic gesture". Shahrir himself reportedly acknowledged the PSA's repeal had not made a serious impact on Parliamentary independence. The Parliamentary Services Act 1963 was consisted of 8 sections. Separation of powers The separation of powers principle functionally differentiates several types of state power (usually law-making , adjudication , and execution ) and requires these operations of government to be conceptually and institutionally distinguishable and articulated, thereby maintaining

404-470: A Department or Office of Parliament, to handle affairs such as maintenance and assistance for MPs. One MP from the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition exasperatedly decried the amount of red tape required for MPs to hire research assistants, and another stated he was forced to use online websites such as Misplaced Pages for his research. However, the MPs agreed that the post of Head of Administration for Parliament

505-563: A bipartite democratic system of government. The "freemen" elected the General Court , which functioned as legislature and judiciary and which in turn elected a governor, who together with his seven "assistants" served in the functional role of providing executive power. Massachusetts Bay Colony (founded 1628), Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), New Jersey , and Pennsylvania had similar constitutions – they all separated political powers. John Locke (1632–1704) deduced from

606-497: A centralized authority. Historical chiefs often held only tenuous power over the chiefdom, but they trended towards autocracy as heterarchical governance was replaced with hierarchical governance. Early states were formed by warlords ruling over conquered territory. The first states were the city-states of Mesopotamia , which first developed around the 35th century BCE. These early states were ruled by kings who were both political and religious leaders. These were followed by

707-410: A certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason, the two powers would be united, as the same persons would sometimes possess, and would be always able to possess, a share in both. Montesquieu actually specified that the judicial independence has to be real, and not merely apparent. The judiciary was generally seen as the most important of

808-460: A common method of co-optation and coercion, as they provide a mechanism to control members of the government, initiate new members, and discourage a military coup. Autocratic governments controlled through a political party last longer on average than other autocratic governments. Control over the public is maintained through indoctrination and propaganda . Autocratic governments enjoy similar levels of public support to democratic governments, and

909-516: A country with more than 3 branches is Taiwan , which uses a five-branch system. This system consists of the Executive Yuan , Legislative Yuan , Judicial Yuan , Control Yuan , and Examination Yuan . Autocracy List of forms of government Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power is held by the ruler, known as an autocrat . It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship , while it

1010-439: A country's politics, including its government's structure and bureaucracy, long after it democratizes. Comparisons between regions have found disparities in citizen attitudes, policy preferences, and political engagement depending on whether it had been subject to autocracy, even in different regions within the same country. Citizens of postcommunist nations are more likely to distrust government and free markets, directly hindering

1111-567: A form of autocracy during the interwar period . It seized power in many of these republics, particularly during the Great Depression . This saw the establishment of fascist , communist , and military dictatorships throughout Europe. The communist state first developed as a new form of autocracy following the Russian Revolution . This type of autocratic government enforced totalitarian control over its citizens through

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1212-572: A form of monarchism that rejected feudalism, and Caesarism , imperial rule reminiscent of Julius Caesar. These were primarily used to define the First and Second French Empires . European monarchies moved away from autocracy in the 19th century as legislatures increased in power. In 19th century Latin America, regional rulers known as caudillos seized power in several nations as early examples of dictators. The 19th and 20th centuries brought about

1313-419: A government that is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control of the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests,

1414-489: A government's actions and its citizens' rights to sort democracies and autocracies. These attributes might include enfranchisement , freedom of expression , freedom of information , separation of powers , or free and fair elections, among others. Both the choice in attributes and the method of measuring them are subjective, and they are defined individually be each index. Despite this, different democracy indices generally produce similar results. Most discrepancies come from

1515-488: A leader amongst themselves, such as in an electoral monarchy . The creation of a constitution is another common measure used by autocrats to stay in power; as they are able to draft the constitution unilaterally, it can be tailored to suit their rule. Autocratic government has been central to political theory since the development of Ancient Greek political philosophy . Despite its historical prominence, autocracy has not been widely recognized as its own political theory in

1616-409: A limited ability to check the power of the autocrat, though these are not usually formed through free and fair elections . These legislatures may also be prone to corruption and can be influenced by the autocrat in exchange for preferential treatment. Other institutions, such as an independent judiciary or an active civil society , may also limit the autocrat's power. Some autocracies emphasize

1717-594: A more democratic government, if the national government has limited control over a specific area or its political conflicts. Autocracies impose few to no limits on the power of the autocrat, and any formal institutions that exist create only limited accountability. To maintain power, an autocrat must have the support of elites that hold influence in the country and assist the autocrat in carrying out their will. The amount of direct control that an autocrat wields in practice may vary. As an autocratic government solidifies its rule, it develops stronger institutions to carry out

1818-405: A negative connotation. Many attempts have been made to define the political structure of autocracy. It traditionally entails a single unrestrained ruler, known as an autocrat, though unrestrained non-democratic rule by a group may also be defined as autocratic. Autocracy is distinguished from other forms of government by the power of the autocrat to unilaterally repress the civil liberties of

1919-473: A ruling family rather than a single autocrat. This has been the case of most monarchies. Such arrangements allow for royal intermarriage , which can join autocracies together through dynastic unions . Personalist dictatorships may also give significance to the ruling family through a cult of personality , such as the Kim family of North Korea . The earliest autocracies, such as chiefdoms , formed where there

2020-652: A significant part in the exercise of more than one function, this represents a fusion of powers . In the Roman Republic , the Roman Senate , Consuls and the Assemblies showed an example of a mixed government according to Polybius ( Histories , Book 6, 11–13). It was Polybius who described and explained the system of checks and balances in detail, crediting Lycurgus of Sparta with the first government of this kind. John Calvin (1509–1564) favoured

2121-588: A state ideology, this may be used to justify the autocrat's rule. This is most common in communist or ethnonationalist governments. Autocracies with unfair elections will cite election results to prove that the autocrat has a mandate to rule. Some autocracies will use practical considerations to legitimise their rule, arguing that they are necessary to provide basic needs to the population. Autocracy encompasses most non-democratic forms of government, including dictatorships , monarchies , and dominant-party regimes . Monarchies were common in medieval Europe, but in

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2222-417: A state ideology. These include most traditional monarchies, military dictatorships, theocracies , and dominant party states. An absolute autocracy may be referred to as despotism , in which the autocrat rules purely through personal control without any meaningful institutions. These were most common in pre-industrial societies, when large bureaucracies had not yet become standard in government. Sultanism

2323-430: A state's status as autocratic is not a significant indicator in whether it is supported by its citizens. Autocrats often appeal to the people by supporting a specific political, ethnic, or religious movement. The different forms of autocratic government create significant variance in their foreign policy. Overall, autocratic governments are more likely to go to war than democratic governments, as citizens are not part of

2424-604: A study of the English constitutional system the advantages of dividing political power into the legislative (which should be distributed among several bodies, for example, the House of Lords and the House of Commons ), on the one hand, and the executive and federative power, responsible for the protection of the country and prerogative of the monarch, on the other hand, as the Kingdom of England had no written constitution. During

2525-545: A system of checks and balances . In this way, Calvin and his followers resisted political absolutism and furthered the growth of democracy. Calvin aimed to protect the rights and the well-being of ordinary people. In 1620 a group of English separatist Congregationalists and Anglicans (later known as the Pilgrim Fathers ) founded Plymouth Colony in North America. Enjoying self-rule, they established

2626-434: A system of government that divided political power between democracy and aristocracy ( mixed government ). Calvin appreciated the advantages of democracy , stating: "It is an invaluable gift if God allows a people to elect its own government and magistrates." In order to reduce the danger of misuse of political power, Calvin suggested setting up several political institutions that should complement and control each other in

2727-419: A tyrannical manner. Again, there is no liberty, if the judiciary power is not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be then the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with violence and oppression. There would be an end to everything, were

2828-819: Is a type of personalist dictatorship in which a ruling family directly integrates itself into the state through a cult of personality , where it maintains control purely through rewards for allies and force against enemies. In these regimes, there is no guiding ideology or legal system, and the state serves only to bring about the leader's own personal enrichment. Other descriptors, such as tyranny and absolutism, may also be associated with variations of autocracy. Though autocracies often restrict civil and political rights , some may allow limited exercise of some rights. These autocracies grant moderate representation to political opponents and allow exercise of some civil rights, though less than those associated with democracy. These are contrasted with closed autocracies, which do not permit

2929-769: Is contrasted with democracy and feudalism . Various definitions of autocracy exist. They may restrict autocracy to cases where power is held by a single individual, or they may define autocracy in a way that includes a group of rulers who wield absolute power. The autocrat has total control over the exercise of civil liberties within the autocracy, choosing under what circumstances they may be exercised, if at all. Governments may also blend elements of autocracy and democracy, forming an anocracy . The concept of autocracy has been recognized in political philosophy since ancient times. Autocrats maintain power through political repression of any opposition and co-optation of other influential or powerful members of society. The general public

3030-449: Is controlled through indoctrination and propaganda , and an autocracy may attempt to legitimize itself in the eyes of the public through appeals to political ideology , religion, birthright , or foreign hostility. Some autocracies establish legislatures, unfair elections , or show trials to further exercise control while presenting the appearance of democracy. The only limits to autocratic rule are practical considerations in preserving

3131-484: Is greater for appointed successors over hereditary successors, as hereditary successors are often younger and less influential. Other autocracies have no appointed successor, and a power struggle will take place upon the death or removal of the autocrat. These methods of succession are a common distinction between monarchical rule and dictatorial rule; monarchies use an established system of succession such as hereditary succession, while dictatorships do not. Autocratic rule

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3232-401: Is greater inequality and less social cohesion . Autocracies formed under these conditions are often more volatile for the same reasons. Autocracies face challenges to their authority from several fronts, including the citizenry, political opposition, and internal disloyalty from elites. As autocrats must share their power with the state's elites to see their will carried out, these elites are

3333-409: Is most unstable during succession from one autocrat to another. Orders of succession allow for more peaceful transition of power, but it prevents meaningful vetting of successors for competence or fortitude. When rule passes between autocrats, the incoming autocrat often inherits an established bureaucracy. This bureaucracy facilitates the transfer of power, as the new ruler gains immediate control over

3434-450: Is necessary to avoid competition among the members of the dominant coalition, who then will credibly commit to cooperate and will form the state. There is great variance in the types of states that become autocratic. Neither a state's size, its military strength, its economic success, nor its cultural attributes significantly affect whether it is likely to be autocratic. Autocracy is more likely to form in heterogeneous populations, as there

3535-423: Is no longer in their interest to support the autocrat. Overthrow of an autocratic government purely through popular revolt is virtually nonexistent throughout history, but popular support for democracy is a significant indicator of challenges to autocratic rule. Modernization and increased wealth are often associated with stronger support for democracy, though failing to provide these things also reduces support for

3636-414: Is now known as foreign policy . Locke distinguishes between separate powers but not discretely separate institutions, and notes that one body or person can share in two or more of the powers. Within these factors Locke heavily argues for "Autry for Action" as the scope and intensity of these campaigns are extremely limited in their ability to form concentrations of power. For instance, Locke noted that while

3737-635: The English Civil War , the parliamentarians viewed the English system of government as composed of three branches – the King, the House of Lords and the House of Commons – where the first should have executive powers only, and the latter two legislative powers. One of the first documents proposing a tripartite system of separation of powers was the Instrument of Government , written by the English general John Lambert in 1653, and soon adopted as

3838-567: The Etruscan civilization were often ruled by tyrants, though myth and historical revisionism later re-imagined these tyrants as kings with hereditary succession. The Roman Republic introduced the concept of the Roman dictator who would be temporarily invested with unchecked power to restore stability during periods of crisis. This temporary dictatorship was eventually subverted by Julius Caesar when he became dictator for life in 44 BCE, ending

3939-650: The Roman emperor . This was adopted in Old Russian as samod′rž′c′ and then modern Russian as samoderžec . In the 18th century, the title for the Russian emperor was translated to authocrateur and then autocrateur in French, while it was translated to Autocrator and then Autokrator in German. These terms were eventually used to refer to autocratic rulers in general. The term has since developed

4040-444: The consent of the governed (cf. " No taxation without representation "), and cannot transfer its law-making powers to another body, known as the nondelegation doctrine (2nd Tr., §142). The term "tripartite system" is commonly ascribed to French Enlightenment political philosopher Montesquieu , although he did not use such a term but referred to the "distribution" of powers. In The Spirit of Law (1748), Montesquieu described

4141-671: The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most dictatorships have been characterized as authoritarian rather than totalitarian. Autocracy comes from the Ancient Greek auto (Greek: αὐτός ; "self") and kratos (Greek: κράτος ; "power, might"). This became the Hellenistic/Byzantine Greek word autocrator (Greek: αὐτοκράτωρ ) and the Latin imperator , both of which were titles for

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4242-435: The regime . Autocrats must retain control over the nation's elites and institutions for their will to be exercised, but they must also prevent any other individual or group from gaining significant power or influence. Internal challenges are the most significant threats faced by autocrats, as they may lead to a coup d'état . Autocracy was among the earliest forms of government. It began as despotism , which existed throughout

4343-407: The selectorate to which autocrats are accountable. Totalitarian autocracies have historically engaged in militarism and expansionism after consolidating power, particularly fascist governments. This allows the autocracy to spread its state ideology, and the existence of foreign adversaries allows the autocrat to rally internal support. Autocratic regimes in the 21st century have departed from

4444-513: The 13th century as monarchs sought larger advising bodies that were representative of the kingdom. European nations moved away from feudalism and towards centralized monarchy as the primary form of government in the 14th century. Absolutism became more common in European monarchies at the onset of the 16th century as the continent struggled with weak leadership and religious conflict. Legislatures during this period were often tailored to enforce

4545-551: The American colonies had adhered to British political ideas and conceived of government as divided into executive and legislative branches (with judges operating as appendages of the executive branch). The following example of the separation of powers and their mutual checks and balances from the experience of the United States Constitution (specifically, Federalist No. 51 ) is presented as illustrative of

4646-445: The PSA to rise. A vast majority of MPs present rose, with some notable exceptions such as Nazri and Foreign Minister Syed Hamid Albar , who had campaigned for the act's repeal in 1992. Some were skeptical of how much effect reviving the act would have on Parliamentary independence; Nazri argued he couldn't "see any less independence among MPs in the last 13 years without the PSA", and constitutional scholar Shad Saleem Faruqi called it

4747-688: The Roman Republic and ushering the creation of the autocratic Roman Empire . Several early military dictatorships formed in East Asia during the post-classical era . These include the rule of the Goguryeo kingdom by Yeon Gaesomun in 642, the Goryeo military regime beginning in 1170, and the shogunate in Japan between the 12th and 19th centuries. Parliamentary monarchies became common in

4848-544: The academic discipline of comparative government ); there are also normative theories, both of political philosophy and constitutional law , meant to propose a reasoned (not conventional or arbitrary) way to separate powers. Disagreement arises between various normative theories in particular about what is the (desirable, in the case of political philosophy, or prescribed, in the case of legal studies) allocation of functions to specific governing bodies or branches of government. How to correctly or usefully delineate and define

4949-647: The act's repeal. Nazri insisted that the PSA would have to pass muster through both the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara (upper house of Parliament; also referred to as the Senate) House Committees before it could come to a vote in Parliament itself. This angered the MPs, and Shahrir Abdul Samad , the chairman of the Barisan Nasional Back-Benchers Club (BNBBC) called for all MPs in favour of immediately restoring

5050-496: The actions of administrative agencies as consisting of the three established functions being exercised next to each other merely in fact. Supervision and integrity-assuring activities (e.g., supervision of elections), as well as mediating functions ( pouvoir neutre ), are also in some instances regarded as their own type, rather than a subset or combination of other types. For instance Sweden have four powers, judicial, executive, legislative and administrative branches. One example of

5151-540: The ancient world in the form of chiefdoms , city-states , and empires . Monarchy was the predominant form of autocracy for most of history. Dictatorship became more common in the 19th century, beginning with the caudillos in Latin America and the empires of Napoleon and Napoleon III in Europe. Totalitarian dictatorships developed in the 20th century with the advent of fascist and communist states. Since

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5252-452: The autocrat's will. These institutions are necessary for maintaining control and extracting value from the state , but they can also serve as checks on the autocrat. Autocrats must also balance the affiliation that regional elites have over their jurisdiction; too little can prevent effective rule, while too much may cause the elite to favor the region's interests over the autocrat's. Some autocracies incorporate an elected legislature that has

5353-402: The autocratic regime. Popular revolt is most likely to occur during periods of reform. Government reform can provide an impetus for stronger opposition, especially when it does not meet expectations, and it can weaken the centralization of power through poor implementation. When revolt appears likely, an autocrat may grant civil rights, redistribute wealth, or abdicate from power entirely to avoid

5454-573: The branches need to have the constitutional means to defend their own legitimate powers from the encroachments of the other branches. Under this influence it was implemented in 1787 in the Constitution of the United States . In Federalist No. 78 , Alexander Hamilton , citing Montesquieu, redefined the judiciary as a separately distinct branch of government with the legislative and the executive branches. Before Hamilton, many colonists in

5555-410: The civil law. By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies, establishes public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call

5656-671: The constitution of England for few years during The Protectorate . The system comprised a legislative branch (the Parliament) and two executive branches, the English Council of State and the Lord Protector , all being elected (though the Lord Protector was elected for life) and having checks upon each other. A further development in English thought was the idea that the judicial powers should be separated from

5757-521: The danger of attack. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection of human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing

5858-440: The decline of traditional monarchies in favor of modern states , many of which developed as autocracies. The upheaval caused by World War I resulted in a broad shift of governance across Europe, and many nations moved away from traditional monarchies. Most European monarchs were stripped of their powers to become constitutional monarchs , or they were displaced entirely in favor of republics . Totalitarianism first developed as

5959-470: The defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other and that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in

6060-510: The distribution of the supreme powers of the State. There are different theories about how to differentiate the functions of the state (or types of government power), so that they may be distributed among multiple structures of government (usually called branches of government, or arms). There are analytical theories that provide a conceptual lens through which to understand the separation of powers as realized in real-world governments (developed by

6161-487: The early state not as a single ruler, but as an organization formed by many actors. They describe the process of autocratic state formation as a bargaining process among individuals with access to violence. For them, these individuals form a dominant coalition that grants each other privileges such as the access to resources. As violence reduces the economic rents , members of the dominant coalition have incentives to cooperate and to avoid fighting. A limited access to privileges

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6262-628: The end of the fourth millennium BCE. China has been subject to autocratic rule almost without interruption since its ancient feudal society was replaced by the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, and even its feudal government had stronger elements of autocracy than other instances of feudalism. The early Chinese philosophy of Confucianism emphasized the importance of benevolent autocratic rule to maintain order, and this philosophy heavily influenced future Chinese thought. City-states in Ancient Greece and

6363-476: The executive and federative powers are different, they are often combined in a single institution (2nd Tr., § 148). Locke believed that the legislative power was supreme over the executive and federative powers, which are subordinate. Locke reasoned that the legislative was supreme because it has law-giving authority; "[F]or what can give laws to another, must need to be superior to him" (2nd Tr., §150). According to Locke, legislative power derives its authority from

6464-521: The executive branch. This followed the use of the juridical system by the Crown to prosecute opposition leaders following the Restoration , in the late years of Charles II and during the short reign of James II (namely, during the 1680s). The first constitutional document to establish the principle of the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches

6565-417: The exercise of these rights. Several forms of semi-autocratic government have been defined in which governments blend elements of democracy and autocracy. These include limited autocracy, semi-autocracy, liberal autocracy , semi-liberal autocracy, anocracy , and electoral autocracy . These governments may begin as democratic governments and then become autocratic as the elected leader seizes control over

6666-577: The first empire, the Akkadian Empire , when they were conquered by Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BCE. The blending of autocratic rule with religious significance continued under the Akkadian Empire, as the king Naram-Sin of Akkad was the first of several kings to be recognized as a god over the following centuries. Ancient Egypt also existed as an autocratic government for most of its early history, first developing states at

6767-416: The general principles applied in similar forms of government as well: But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other cases, be made commensurate to

6868-519: The greatest threat to the autocrat. Most autocratic governments are overthrown by a coup , and historically most have been succeeded by another autocratic government, though a trend toward democracy developed in 20th century Europe. These new governments are commonly a different type of autocracy or a weaker variant of the same type. While popular support for revolution is often necessary to overthrow an autocratic government, most revolts are accompanied by internal support from elites who believe that it

6969-737: The historical precedent of direct rule in favor of institutions that resemble those of democratic governments. This may include controlled liberties for citizens such as the formation of opposition parties to participate in unfair elections . Elections provide several benefits to autocratic regimes, allowing for a venue to restrain or appease the opposition and creating a method to transfer power without violent conflict. Many autocrats also institute show trials to carry out political repression rather than carrying out direct purges. This may be done to more publicly discourage future dissidents. Prior to this trend, autocratic elections rarely invited public participation. They were instead used by elites to choose

7070-416: The integrity of each. To put this model into practice, government is divided into structurally independent branches to perform various functions (most often a legislature, a judiciary and an administration, sometimes known as the trias politica ). When each function is allocated strictly to one branch, a government is described as having a high degree of separation; whereas, when one person or branch plays

7171-431: The judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state. Montesquieu argues that each Power should only exercise its own functions. He was quite explicit here: When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in

7272-417: The king's will but not challenge it. This was sometimes justified through the divine right of kings, particularly in the kingdoms of England and France. The French Revolution marked a significant shift in the perception of dictatorship as a form of tyrannical rule, as revolutionaries justified their actions as a means of combatting tyranny. In Europe, the original forms of dictatorship were Bonapartism ,

7373-689: The long-term economic prosperity of these nations. Xenophobia is generally more common in post-autocratic nations, and voters in these nations are more likely to vote for far-right or far-left political parties. Many democracy indices have been developed to measure how democratic or authoritarian countries are, such as the Polity data series , the Freedom in the World report, and the Varieties of Democracy indices. These indices measure various attributes of

7474-508: The measurement of anocratic governments that blend democratic and autocratic traits. The concepts of tyranny and despotism as distinct modes of government were abandoned in the 19th century in favor of more specific typologies. Modern typology of autocratic regimes originates from the work of Juan Linz in the mid-20th century, when his division of democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism became accepted. The first general theory of autocracy that defined it independently of other systems

7575-423: The modern era dictatorship is the most common form of government globally. Autocratic governments are classified as totalitarian when they engage in direct control of citizens' lives, or as authoritarian when they do not. Totalitarian governments do not allow political or cultural pluralism . Instead, citizens are expected to devote themselves to a single ideological vision and demonstrate their support of

7676-551: The most common claim of legitimacy is birthright in an autocracy that uses hereditary succession. Theocratic governments appeal to religion to justify their rule, arguing that religious leaders must also be political leaders. Other autocrats may use similar claims of divine authority to justify their rule, often in absolute monarchy . This includes the Mandate of Heaven in ancient China and the divine right of kings in 17th century England and France. When an autocratic government has

7777-695: The nation without having to conquer its people or win their popular support. Autocrats may claim that they have legitimacy under a legal framework, or they may exert influence purely through force. Opinion on whether an autocratic government is legitimate can vary, even among its own population. An autocracy's approach to legitimacy can be affected by recognition from other nations. Widely accepted autocratic governments are more able to convince their own populations of their legitimacy. Less widely accepted autocracies may rally internal support by attributing their lack of recognition to malevolent foreign efforts, such as American imperialism or Zionism . Historically,

7878-592: The nation's institutions and electoral process. Conversely, autocratic governments may transition to democracy through a period of semi-autocratic rule. Autocracy has been the primary form of government for most of human history. One of the earliest forms of government was the chiefdom that developed in tribal societies , which date back to the Neolithic . Chiefdoms are regional collections of villages ruled over by tribal chief . They are an emergent form of governance, originating from societies that previously lacked

7979-458: The people and to choose what liberties they may exercise. It is distinct from democracy and feudalism , and modern autocracy is often defined as any non-democratic government. As with all forms of government, autocracy has no clearly defined boundaries, and it may intersect with other forms of government. Though autocracy usually encompasses an entire country, it can sometimes take place at subnational or local levels, even in countries with

8080-452: The people, who have the right to make and unmake the legislature. He argues that once people consent to be governed by laws, only those representatives they have chosen can create laws on their behalf, and they are bound solely by laws enacted by these representatives. Locke maintains that there are restrictions on the legislative power. Locke says that the legislature cannot govern arbitrarily, cannot levy taxes, or confiscate property without

8181-427: The power to appoint carries with it the power to revoke. The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch, because this branch of government, having need of despatch, is better administered by one than by many: on the other hand, whatever depends on the legislative power is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person. But if there were no monarch, and the executive power should be committed to

8282-433: The real world on its own initiative. Adjudicating constitutional disputes is sometimes conceptually distinguished from other types of power, because applying the often unusually indeterminate provisions of constitutions tends to call for exceptional methods to come to reasoned decisions. Administration is sometimes proposed as a hybrid function, combining aspects of the three other functions; opponents of this view conceive of

8383-446: The regime and prevent the loss of power. This repression may take place implicitly by coercing and intimidating potential opposition, or it may involve direct violence. Autocratic governments also engage in co-optation, in which influential figures are provided benefits by the regime in exchange for their support. Coercing these elites is usually more efficient for the autocrat than intimidating them through violence. Political parties are

8484-431: The right to direct how the force of the commonwealth shall be employed" (2nd Tr., § 143), while executive power entailed the "execution of the laws that are made, and remain in force" (2nd Tr., § 144). Locke further distinguished federative power, which entailed "the power of war and peace, leagues and alliances, and all transactions with all persons and communities without [outside] the commonwealth" (2nd Tr., § 145), or what

8585-516: The same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, executing the public resolutions, and trying the causes of individuals. Separation of powers requires a different source of legitimization, or a different act of legitimization from the same source, for each of the separate powers. If the legislative branch appoints the executive and judicial powers, as Montesquieu indicated, there will be no separation or division of its powers, since

8686-481: The society that they exploit through taxation and other seizure of resources, as opposed to the bandits in stateless societies that have no incentive to improve society. This creates a Pareto efficiency in which both the autocrat and the subjects benefit over the alternative. Douglass North , John Joseph Wallis, and Barry R. Weingast describe autocracies as natural states that arise from this need to monopolize violence. In contrast to Olson, these scholars understand

8787-441: The state ideology through political engagement. Totalitarian governments are revolutionary , seeking radically to reform society, and they often engage in terror against groups that do not comply with the state's vision. Totalitarianism is associated with communist states and Nazi Germany . Authoritarian governments maintain control of a nation purely through repression and controlled opposition rather than mandated adherence to

8888-405: The threat of violence. Some autocracies use hereditary succession in which a set of rules determines who will be the next autocrat. Otherwise, a successor may be handpicked, either by the autocrat or by another governmental body. Pre-determined successors are incentivized to overthrow and replace the autocrat, creating a dilemma for autocrats wishing to choose a successor. The threat of overthrow

8989-440: The three powers, independent and unchecked. According to the principle of checks and balances, each of the branches of the state should have the power to limit or check the other two, creating a balance between the three separate powers of the state. Each branch's efforts to prevent either of the other branches from becoming supreme form part of an eternal conflict, which leaves the people free from government abuses. Immanuel Kant

9090-432: The time, and they frequently destroyed the records that did exist. Study of citizen support for autocratic government relative to democratic government has also been infrequent, and most studies conducted in this area have been limited to East Asia . Collection of information on autocratic regimes has improved in the 21st century, allowing for more detailed analysis. Autocratic government has been found to have effects on

9191-479: The various forms of distribution of political power among a legislature , an executive , and a judiciary . Montesquieu's approach was to present and defend a form of government whose powers were not excessively centralized in a single monarch or similar ruler (a form known then as "aristocracy"). He based this model on the Constitution of the Roman Republic and the British constitutional system . Montesquieu took

9292-485: The view that the Roman Republic had powers separated so that no one could usurp complete power. In the British constitutional system, Montesquieu discerned a separation of powers among the monarch, Parliament, and the courts of law. In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive in regard to matters that depend on

9393-633: The way that democracy has. Autocratic government is generally considered to be less desirable than democratic government. Reasons for this include its proclivity for corruption and violence as well as its lack of efficiency and its weakness in promoting liberty and transparency. Historically, data on the operation of autocratic government has been limited, preventing detailed study. Study of postcolonial autocracy in Africa has been particularly limited, as these governments were less likely to keep detailed records of their activities relative to other governments at

9494-405: The world through colonization. Societies without a state were readily colonized by European nations and subsequently adopted democracy and parliamentary government after it became common in Europe. Regions with historically strong autocratic states were able to resist European colonization or otherwise went unchanged, allowing autocracy to be preserved. The strength of autocracy in global politics

9595-496: The ‘state functions’ is another major bone of contention. The legislative function of the government broadly consists of authoritatively issuing binding rules. The function of adjudication (judicial function) is the binding application of legal rules to a particular case, which usually involves creatively interpreting and developing these rules. The executive function of government includes many exercises of powers in fact, whether in carrying into effect legal decisions or affecting

9696-550: Was Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host , written in 1710 by Ukrainian Hetman Pylyp Orlyk . An earlier forerunner to Montesquieu's tripartite system was articulated by John Locke in his work Two Treatises of Government (1690). In the Two Treatises , Locke distinguished between legislative, executive, and federative power. Locke defined legislative power as having "...

9797-420: Was an advocate of this, noting that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution to pit opposing factions against each other. Checks and balances are designed to maintain the system of separation of powers keeping each branch in its place. The idea is that it is not enough to separate the powers and guarantee their independence but

9898-465: Was created by Gordon Tullock in 1974 through applied public choice theory . At the end of the Cold War, Francis Fukuyama 's theory of the end of history became popular among political scientists. This theory proposed that autocratic government was approaching a permanent decline to be replaced by liberal democracy . This theory was largely abandoned after the increase in autocratic government over

9999-454: Was previously no centralized government. The initial development of an autocracy is attributed to its efficiency over anarchy , as it provides security and negates internal divisions. Mancur Olson introduced the term "stationary bandits" to describe the method of control associated with autocracy, as opposed to the "roaming bandits" that dominate anarchic society. Under this definition, autocrats as stationary bandits see long-term investment in

10100-422: Was significantly reduced at the end of the Cold War with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but it saw a resurgence over the following decades through regional powers such as China, Iran, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. The fall of totalitarian regimes led to authoritarianism becoming the predominant form of autocracy in the 21st century. Political repression is the primary method by which autocrats preserve

10201-570: Was unnecessary interference in Parliament's financial affairs, and asked for the restoration of the Parliamentary Services Act so Parliament could run its own affairs independent of the government. Since 1992, government agencies such as the Public Services Department and Treasury had been staffing and maintaining Parliament, as the parliamentary service advisory committee had been disbanded in the wake of

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