Partenheim is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde , a kind of collective municipality – in the Alzey-Worms district in Rhineland-Palatinate , Germany .
90-468: The municipality is a winegrowing centre in the heart of Rhenish Hesse . Since 1972, it has belonged to the Verbandsgemeinde of Wörrstadt , whose seat is in the like-named municipality . In 757, Partenheim had its first documentary mention in a donation document that dealt with a vineyard in the marca pattenheimo (Partenheim municipal area). Here later existed a zone of joint landholding –
180-486: A canting charge, as these axes are known as Parten (although the far more usual German word for "axes" is Äxte ). The inescutcheon at the escutcheon ’s fess point (that is, exact centre) is a peculiarity among municipal arms, as this device – called a Herzschild , or "heart shield", in German – is reserved for district arms. However, since seals dating from the 17th century already showed this composition, and since there
270-420: A dentist , drink distributors, a fire brigade , a hairdresser , inns , a kindergarten , physicians , a primary school , a tax adviser and wineries . Winegrowing Viticulture ( Latin : vitis cultura , " vine -growing"), viniculture ( vinis cultura , " wine -growing"), or winegrowing is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes . It is a branch of the science of horticulture . While
360-577: A bad weed when it out-competes cultivated plants. A different group of weeds consists of those that are invasive, introduced, often unintentionally, to habitats to which they are not native but in which they thrive. Without their original competitors, herbivores, and diseases, they may increase and become a serious nuisance. One such plant is purple loosestrife , a native of Europe and Asia where it occurs in ditches, wet meadows and marshes; introduced into North America, it has no natural enemies to keep it in check and has taken over vast tracts of wetlands to
450-496: A cluster. Each grape berry contains a pedicel which attaches to the rachis . The main function of the rachis is to allow the grapes to receive their water and nutrients. The pollination and fertilization of grapes results in one to four seeds within each berry. When fertilization does not occur, seedless grapes are formed, which are sought after for the production of raisins . Regardless of pollination and fertilization, most plants will produce around 100 to 200 grapes. The skin of
540-427: A few years. A viticulturist faces many hazards that can have an adverse effect on the wine produced from the grape or kill the vine itself. A green harvest is the removal of immature grape bunches, typically for the purpose of decreasing yield. The removal of the bunches while they are still green induces the vine to put all its energy into developing the remaining grapes. In theory this results in better ripening and
630-598: A fresher and more acidic harvest. In general, the average yearly temperature for most crops should average around 15 °C (59 °F) in order to achieve the highest quality in each grape. Summer: Ideal temperatures in summer average around 22 °C (72 °F). Ideal summer temperatures enable fruits to ripen. Temperature and sunshine are the most important factors in ripening. Winter: Ideal temperatures in winter average around 3 °C (37 °F). Ideal winter temperatures are necessary to allow grape vines to enter their resting phase. If temperatures fall too low,
720-409: A god. The Bible makes numerous references to wine, and grapevines, both symbolically and literally. Grapes are first mentioned when Noah grows them on his farm (Genesis 9:20–21). References to wine are made in the book of Proverbs (20:1) and the book of Isaiah (5:1–25). Deuteronomy (18:3–5, 14:22–27, 16:13–15) reports the use of wine during Jewish festivals. In Christianity wine is the symbol of
810-558: A kind of condominium , although the joint lords were not sovereign, both holding the fief within the Electorate of Trier – called a Ganerbschaft - with the two aristocratic houses being the lords of Partenheim and the Barons of Wallbrunn. The council is made up of 16 council members, who were elected at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman. The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded
900-419: A means to disperse. The nematodes (eelworms) that attack plants are minute, often too small to be seen with the naked eye, but their presence is often apparent in the galls or "knots" they form in plant tissues. Vast numbers of nematodes are found in soil and attack roots, but others affect stems, buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. High infestations cause stunting, deformation and retardation of plant growth, and
990-548: A nuisance around buildings, roadsides and recreation areas because of its uncomfortably sharp spiny burrs . Disease-causing pathogens such as fungi , oomycetes , bacteria , and viruses can cause damage to crops and garden plants. The term "plant pest", mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest
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#17327944399581080-430: A pest is a competitor to humanity. Pests include plants, pathogens, invertebrates, vertebrates, or any organism that harms an ecosystem. Animals are considered pests or vermin when they injure people or damage crops, forestry, or buildings. Elephants are regarded as pests by the farmers whose crops they raid and trample. Mosquitoes and ticks are vectors that can transmit ailments but are also pests because of
1170-404: A pest plant "any plant that, in the local government authority's opinion, is likely to adversely affect the environment of the district, the value of property in the district, or the health, comfort or convenience of the district's inhabitants." An example of such a plant prescribed under this regulation is caltrop, Tribulus terrestris , which can cause poisoning in sheep and goats, but is mainly
1260-507: A pest when it tramples crops. Some animals are disliked because they bite or sting; wolves , snakes , wasps , ants , bed bugs , fleas and ticks belong in this category. Others enter the home; these include houseflies, which land on and contaminate food; beetles, which tunnel into the woodwork; and other animals that scuttle about on the floor at night, like rats and cockroaches , which are often associated with unsanitary conditions. Agricultural and horticultural crops are attacked by
1350-436: A slope affords better drainage, obviating the possibility that the vine might sit in overly moist soil. In cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive more hours of sunlight and are preferred; in warmer climes , north-facing slopes are preferred. In the southern hemisphere, these orientations are reversed. Quality soil is important to allow plants to have better root systems. The growth and health of
1440-402: A slope can receive a greater intensity of the sun's rays, with sunshine falling on an angle perpendicular to the hillside. In flatter terrain, the intensity of the sunlight is diluted as it spreads out across a wider surface area. Small slopes that are elevated above surrounding ground are the best and safest places for crops, because these small elevations are less prone to frost. Additionally,
1530-399: A suitable stocking density, and minimizing injury and stress to trees. Pest control in buildings can be approached in several ways, depending on the type of pest and the area affected. Methods include improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the habitat, and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides. For example, the pesticide Boron can be impregnated into
1620-518: A thick cuticle or waxy deposits, with the second line of defence being toxic or distasteful secondary metabolites . Mechanical injury to the plant tissues allows the entry of pathogens and stimulates the plant to mobilise its chemical defences. The plant soon seals off the wound to reduce further damage. Plants sometimes take active steps to reduce herbivory. Macaranga triloba for example has adapted its thin-walled stems to create ideal housing for an ant Crematogaster spp., which, in turn, protects
1710-497: A uniquely preferred environment for ideal growing. Because climates vary from region to region, selecting the best strain is an important decision in grape cultivation. Additionally, because climatic factors such as temperature and rain can be unpredictable and uncontrollable, each year will produce unique qualities and yields of grapes. Wine grapes are also especially susceptible to climate change and temperature variation. Grape vines need approximately 1300–1500 hours of sunshine during
1800-479: A vine can be affected if the soil quality is poor. Different grape species prefer various soil conditions, although there are general quality factors. Favorable soil conditions include: aeration , loose texture, good drainage and moderate fertility. Drainage factors are cited as the most important soil characteristic to affect grape vine growth. When root growth is restricted due to bad soil, vine growth and fruit yields lessen and plant survival rates can dip to only
1890-405: A wide variety of pests, the most important being rodents , insects , mites , nematodes and gastropod molluscs . The damage they do results both from the direct injury they cause to the plants and from the indirect consequences of the fungal, bacterial or viral infections they transmit. Plants have their own defences against these attacks but these may be overwhelmed, especially in habitats where
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#17327944399581980-423: Is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation; the term has no botanical significance. Often, weeds are simply those native plants that are adapted to grow in disturbed ground, the disturbance caused by ploughing and cultivation favouring them over other species. Any plant is a weed if it appears in a location where it is unwanted; Bermuda grass makes a good lawn plant under hot dry conditions but become
2070-601: Is a wine term in German equivalent to a field blend, which means that grapes of different varieties are planted, harvested and vinified together. In older times, this was common, but the practice has almost stopped. It is, however, a specialty of Vienna . Other traditional field blends include Alsace wine , notably edelzwicker and gentil blends, and Douro wine. 39. Goldammer, T. (2015). Grape Growers Handbook: A Guide To Viticulture for Wine Production . ISBN 978-0-9675212-7-5 Pest (organism) A pest
2160-444: Is any organism harmful to humans or human concerns. The term is particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock, and forestry or cause a nuisance to people, especially in their homes. Humans have modified the environment for their own purposes and are intolerant of other creatures occupying the same space when their activities impact adversely on human objectives. Thus, an elephant is unobjectionable in its natural habitat but
2250-492: Is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system ) will propagate across the entire system. Plants have developed strategies that they use in their own defence, be they thorns (modified stems) or spines (modified leaves), stings,
2340-536: Is closely related to the history of wine , with evidence that humans cultivated wild grapes to make wine as far back as the Neolithic period. Evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia . The oldest-known winery was discovered in the "Areni-1" cave in Vayots Dzor , Armenia . Dated to c. 4100 BC,
2430-403: Is provided by cuneiform sources (ancient writing on clay tablets), plant remains, historical geography, and archaeological excavations. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption and cultivated grape species. In addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins . The earliest act of cultivation appears to have been
2520-698: Is the case with the emerald ash borer , an insect native to north-eastern Asia, which, since its arrival in North America, has killed millions of ash trees. Another example of a beetle species that exhibits pest behavior are Melolontha Hippocastrani , that cause severe, long-term damage on young trees by feeding on roots. Animals able to live in the dry conditions found in buildings include many arthropods such as beetles, cockroaches, moths, and mites. Another group, including termites , woodworm , longhorn beetles , and wood ants cause structural damage to buildings and furniture. The natural habitat of these
2610-424: Is the decaying parts of trees. The deathwatch beetle infests the structural timbers of old buildings, mostly attacking hardwood , especially oak . The initial attack usually follows the entry of water into a building and the subsequent decay of damp timber. Furniture beetles mainly attack the sapwood of both hard and soft wood , only attacking the heartwood when it is modified by fungal decay. The presence of
2700-549: The Côte-d'Or , the monks divided the land into separate vineyards, many of which still exist today, like Montrachet and La Romanée . In Greek mythology , the demigod Dionysus ( Bacchus in Roman mythology ), son of Zeus , invented the grapevine and the winepress. When his closest satyr friend died trying to bring him a vine Dionysus deemed important, Dionysus forced the vine to bear fruit. His fame spread, and he finally became
2790-523: The Last Supper , representing the blood of Christ . It is mentioned several times in the New Testament . We have the parable of the kingdom of heaven likened to the father starting to engage laborers for his vineyard. The vine is used as symbol of Jesus Christ based on his own statement, "I am the true vine (John 15:1)." In that sense, a vine is placed as sole symbol on the tomb of Constantine
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2880-721: The Mediterranean began to emerge from barbarism when they learnt to cultivate the olive and the vine. Thucydides was most likely referencing the time between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, when viticulture emerged in force in Asia Minor , Greece , and the Cyclades Islands of the Aegean Sea . During this period, grape cultivation developed from an aspect of local consumption to an important component of international economies and trade . From 1200 BC to 900 BC,
2970-577: The Middle Ages . Around this time, an early system of Metayage emerged in France with laborers ( Prendeur ) working the vineyards under contractual agreements with the landowners ( Bailleur ). In most cases, the prendeurs were given flexibility in selecting their crop and developing their own vineyard practice. In northern Europe, the weather and climate posed difficulties for grape cultivation, so certain species were selected that better suited
3060-762: The Phoenicians developed viticulture practices that were later used in Carthage . Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian writer Mago recorded such practices in a two-volume work that was one of the few artifacts to survive the Roman destruction of Carthage during the Third Punic War . The Roman statesman Cato the Elder was influenced by these texts, and around 160 BC he wrote De Agricultura , which expounded on Roman viticulture and agriculture. Around 65 AD,
3150-641: The drugstore beetle , the sawtoothed grain beetle and the Indianmeal moth being found worldwide. The insects may be present in the warehouse or maybe introduced during shipping, in retail outlets, or in the home; they may enter packets through tiny cracks or may chew holes in the packaging. The longer a product is stored, the more likely it is to become contaminated, with the insects often originating from dry pet foods. Some mites, too, infest foodstuffs and other stored products. Each substance has its own specific mite, and they multiply with great rapidity. One of
3240-427: The growing season and around 690 millimetres (27 in) of rainfall throughout the year in order to produce grapes suitable for winemaking. In ideal circumstances, the vine will receive most of the rainfall during the winter and spring months: rain at harvesttime can create many hazards, such as fungal diseases and berry splitting. The optimum weather during the growing season is a long, warm summer that allows
3330-429: The 10th century Greek monk Tryphon of Constantinople is said to have prayed "Snails, earwigs and all other creatures, hurt not the vines, nor the land nor the fruit of the trees, nor the vegetables ... but depart into the wild mountains." The 11th-century Old English medical text Lacnunga contained charms and spells to ward off or treat pests such as wid smeogan wyrme , " penetrating worms ", in this case requiring
3420-527: The Great . The vast majority of the world's wine-producing regions are found between the temperate latitudes of 30° and 50° in each hemisphere . Within these bands, the annual mean temperatures are between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F). The presence of large bodies of water and mountain ranges can have positive effects on the climate and vines. Nearby lakes and rivers can serve as protection for drastic temperature drops at night by releasing
3510-472: The Roman writer Columella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume text De Re Rustica . Columella's work is one of the earliest to detail trellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice of training vines to grow up along tree trunks. The benefits of using stakes over trees was largely to minimize
3600-609: The ants. Pest ranges are heavily determined by climate . The most common example for the longest time has been rainfall : Although drought stress weakens crop disease resistance , drought also retards contagion and infection; and some variability in precipitation is universal. More recently climate change has been rapidly altering ranges, mostly by pushing them towards the poles (both North and South ). From 1960-2013 ranges have shifted poleward by 2.7 ± 0.8 km (1.68 ± 0.50 mi) per year - albeit with significant differences between taxa . (Especially in
3690-474: The beetles only becomes apparent when the larvae gnaw their way out, leaving small circular holes in the timber. Carpet beetles and clothes moths cause non-structural damage to property such as clothing and carpets. It is the larvae that are destructive, feeding on wool, hair, fur, feathers and down. The moth larvae live where they feed, but the beetle larvae may hide behind skirting boards or in other similar locations between meals. They may be introduced to
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3780-641: The birth of civilisation. Plagues of locusts caused devastation in the ancient Middle East, and were recorded in tombs in Ancient Egypt from as early as 2470 BC, and in the Book of Exodus in the Bible, as taking place in Egypt around 1446 BC. Homer 's Iliad mentions locusts taking to the wing to escape fire. Given the impact of agricultural pests on human lives, people have prayed for deliverance. For example,
3870-510: The case of viruses and nematodes which show the opposite trend, toward the equator . This may be due to their lack of airborne dispersal , so their trend conforms with the trend of human-aided dispersal ; or identification difficulties in the field.) In Europe, crop pests are expected to burgeon as the vertebrate predators which control them are expected to be suppressed by future climatic conditions. Together pests and diseases cause up to 40% yield losses every year. The animal groups of
3960-458: The concept of thinning or sacrificing part of the grape crop, i.e. green harvesting, with the aim of improving the quality of the remaining grapes, predates modern critics, the practice has increased in recent times in vineyards found in California and areas where the grapes grow easily. (McCoy) A field blend is a wine that is produced from two or more different grape varieties interplanted in
4050-455: The cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea. Many of the animals that we regard as pests live in our homes. Before humans built dwellings, these creatures lived in the wider environment, but co-evolved with humans, adapting to the warm, sheltered conditions that a house provides, the wooden timbers, the furnishings, the food supplies and the rubbish dumps. Many no longer exist as free-living organisms in
4140-469: The crops can be injured. Spring and Fall: Spring and fall are critical seasons for grape development, because the plants are susceptible to frost damage, which can injure the fruiting buds. Wet weather in spring can increase the odds of mildew formation. To prevent mildew, some farms introduce devices such as heaters or large fans in vineyards. However, such solutions can be costly. Hillsides and slopes are preferred over flatter terrain: vines growing on
4230-416: The damage done by molluscs becomes of greater significance. Terrestrial molluscs need moist environments; snails may be more noticeable because their shells provide protection from desiccation, while most slugs live in soil and only come out to feed at night. They devour seedlings, damage developing shoots and feed on salad crops and cabbages, and some species tunnel into potatoes and other tubers. A weed
4320-623: The dangers associated with climbing trees, which was necessary to prune the dense foliage in order to give the vines sunlight, and later to harvest them. Roman expansion across Western Europe brought Roman viticulture to the areas that would become some of the world's best-known winegrowing regions : the Spanish Rioja , the German Mosel , and the French Bordeaux , Burgundy and Rhône . Roman viticulturists were among
4410-448: The development of more numerous and mature flavour compounds. In the absence of a green harvest, a healthy, vigorous vine can produce dilute, unripe grapes. In Europe, many appellations restrict the yield permitted from a given area, so there is even more incentive to perform green harvesting when presented with excess crop. Often, the excess must be sold for a pittance and used for industrial alcohol production rather than wine. While
4500-408: The difficulty of examining entire trees, and the certainty that pesticides would damage many forest organisms other than the intended pests. Forest integrated pest management therefore aims to use a combination of prevention, cultural control measures, and direct control (such as pesticide use). Cultural measures include choosing appropriate species, keeping competing vegetation under control, ensuring
4590-494: The distress caused by their bites. Grasshoppers are usually solitary herbivores of little economic importance until the conditions are met for them to enter a swarming phase , become locusts and cause enormous damage. Many people appreciate birds in the countryside and their gardens, but when these accumulate in large masses, they can be a nuisance. Flocks of starlings can consist of hundreds of thousands of individual birds, their roosts can be noisy and their droppings voluminous;
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#17327944399584680-715: The droppings are acidic and can cause corrosion of metals, stonework, and brickwork as well as being unsightly. Pigeons in urban settings may be a health hazard, and gulls near the coast can become a nuisance, especially if they become bold enough to snatch food from passers-by. All birds are a risk at airfields where they can be sucked into aircraft engines. Woodpeckers sometimes excavate holes in buildings, fencing and utility poles, causing structural damage; they also drum on various reverberatory structures on buildings such as gutters, down-spouts, chimneys, vents and aluminium sheeting. Jellyfish can form vast swarms which may be responsible for damage to fishing gear, and sometimes clog
4770-596: The environment. Most vineyards grew white varieties of grape, which are more resistant to the damp and cold climates. A few species of red grape, such as the Pinot Noir , were also introduced. Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry dates back to 1416 and depicts horticulture and viticulture in France. The images illustrate peasants bending down to prune grapes from vines behind castle walls. Additional illustrations depict grape vines being harvested, with each vine being cut to three spurs around knee height. Many of
4860-634: The exclusion of native species. In forestry, pests may affect various parts of the tree, from its roots and trunk to the canopy far overhead. The accessibility of the part of the tree affected may make detection difficult, so that a pest problem may already be far advanced before it is first observed from the ground. The larch sawfly and spruce budworm are two insect pests prevalent in Alaska and aerial surveys can show which sections of forest are being defoliated in any given year so that appropriate remedial action can be taken. Some pests may not be present on
4950-517: The favoring of hermaphroditic members of the Vitis vinifera species over the barren male vines and the female vines, which were dependent on a nearby male for pollination . With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic. At the end of the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Thucydides wrote: The people of
5040-764: The fibres of cellulose insulation to kill self-grooming insects such as ants and cockroaches. Clothes moths can be controlled with airtight containers for storage, periodic laundering of garments, trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals. Traditional mothballs deter adult moths with strong-smelling naphthalene ; modern ones use volatile repellents such as 1,4-Dichlorobenzene . Moth larvae can be killed with insecticides such as permethrin or pyrethroids . However, insecticides cannot safely be used in food storage areas; alternative treatments include freezing foods for four days at 0 °F (−18 °C) or baking for half an hour at 130 °F (54 °C) to kill any insects present. Pests have attracted human attention from
5130-655: The field blend is an anachronism, and almost all wines are assembled by blending from smaller, individual lots. However, in California some of the oldest (and lowest-yielding) Zinfandel comes from vineyards that are field-blended. Ridge Vineyards owns the Lytton Springs vineyards in Sonoma County, which were planted from 1900 to 1905 in what Ridge calls "a traditional field blend of about seventy percent Zinfandel, twenty percent Petite Sirah , and ten percent Grenache and Carignan." Gemischter Satz ( Mixed set )
5220-459: The first to identify steep hillsides as one of the better locations to plant vines, because cool air runs downhill and gathers at the bottom of valleys. While some cool air is beneficial, too much can rob the vine of the heat it needs for photosynthesis , and in winter it increases the risk of frost . Catholic monks (particularly the Cistercians ) were the most prominent viticulturists of
5310-459: The following results: The municipality's arms might be described thus: Per pale, in dexter per fess sable three piles transposed argent and argent three piles of the first, in sinister azure three lozenges of the second, over all at the fess point an inescutcheon of the second charged with two axes in saltire of the third, the one bendwise sinister surmounting the other. The charges on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side represent
5400-560: The general collection. There are over four thousand species of cockroach worldwide, but only four species are commonly regarded as pests, having adapted to live permanently in buildings. Considered to be a sign of unsanitary conditions, they feed on almost anything, reproduce rapidly and are difficult to eradicate. They can passively transport pathogenic microbes on their body surfaces, particularly in environments such as hospitals, and are linked with allergic reactions in humans. Various insects attack dry food products, with flour beetles ,
5490-447: The grape accounts for 5 to 20% of the total weight of a grape depending on the variety. When grape skin ripens, it contains the majority of the aromatic substances and tannin . These factors become important in winemaking for methods including color extraction or aroma dissolution. Although the skin contains the majority of the tannin, small percentages can be found throughout the grape and during all of its developmental stages. However,
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#17327944399585580-428: The grapes the opportunity to ripen fully and to develop a balance between the levels of acids and sugars in the grape. Hot and sunny climates have a frost-free growing season of 200 days or more. These climates allow grapes to ripen faster with higher sugar levels and lower acidity. Cooler climates have a frost-free growing season of around 150–160 days. Cooler seasons force the grapes to ripen earlier, which produces
5670-401: The greatest importance as agricultural pests are (in order of economic importance) insects , mites , nematodes and gastropod molluscs . Insects are responsible for two major forms of damage to crops. First, there is the direct injury they cause to the plants as they feed on the tissues; a reduction in leaf surface available for photosynthesis, distortion of growing shoots, a diminution of
5760-469: The heat that the water has stored during the day to warm the vines. Structure of the grape vine There are many different important parts of the grape vine. Starting from the bottom and moving up there are the Fender roots, then above that are the roots . These help with anchorage, absorption and food storage. Then there is the trunk which branches out into arms. These help support conduction. Higher up are
5850-527: The home in any product containing animal fibres including upholstered furniture; the moths are feeble fliers but the carpet beetles may also enter houses through open windows. Furniture beetles, carpet beetles and clothes moths are also capable of creating great damage to museum exhibits, zoological and botanical collections, and other cultural heritage items. Constant vigilance is required to prevent an attack, and newly acquired items, and those that have been out on loan, may need quarantining before being added to
5940-667: The most damaging is the flour mite , which is found in grain and may become exceedingly abundant in poorly stored material. In time, predatory mites usually move in and control the flour mites. The control of pests in crops is as old as civilisation. The earliest approach was mechanical, from ploughing to picking off insects by hand. Early methods included the use of sulphur compounds, before 2500 BC in Sumeria. In ancient China, insecticides derived from plants were in use by 1200 BC to treat seeds and to fumigate plants. Chinese agronomy recognised biological control by natural enemies of pests and
6030-656: The native territory of Vitis vinifera , the common grape vine, ranges from Western Europe to the Persian shores of the Caspian Sea , the vine has demonstrated high levels of adaptability to new environments, hence viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica . The duties of a viticulturist include monitoring and controlling pests and diseases , fertilizing , irrigation , canopy management , monitoring fruit development and characteristics , deciding when to harvest , and vine pruning during
6120-680: The nematodes can transmit viral diseases from one plant to another. When its populations are high, the potato cyst nematode can cause reductions of 80% in yield of susceptible potato varieties. The nematode eggs survive in the soil for many years, being stimulated to hatch by chemical cues produced by roots of susceptible plants. Slugs and snails are terrestrial gastropod molluscs which typically chew leaves, stems, flowers, fruit and vegetable debris. Slugs and snails differ little from each other and both do considerable damage to plants. With novel crops being grown and with insect pests having been brought more under control by biological and other means,
6210-545: The node, inter node, leaves, cluster (of grapes) and the tendril . The tendril helps with support of the plant. The grape is classified as a berry . On the vine, grapes are organized through systems known as clusters. Grape clusters can vary in compactness which can result in long clusters (resulting in the grapes spreading out) or short clusters (resulting in grapes packed together). In some grape species, clusters ripen collectively, which allows them to be harvested together. For others, grapes may ripen individually within
6300-441: The open for brief periods as adults, primarily to mate and disperse. The import and export of timber has inadvertently assisted some insect pests to establish themselves far from their country of origin. An insect may be of little importance in its native range, being kept under control by parasitoid wasps, predators, and the natural resistance of the host trees, but be a serious pest in a region into which it has been introduced. This
6390-537: The outside world, and can therefore be considered to be domesticated. The St Kilda house mouse rapidly became extinct when the last islander left the island of St Kilda, Scotland in 1930, but the St Kilda field mouse survived. Plants may be considered pests, for example, if they are invasive species or weeds . There is no universal definition of what makes a plant a pest. Some governments, such as that of Western Australia, permit their authorities to prescribe as
6480-452: The plant from herbivores. In addition to providing housing, the plant also provides the ant with its exclusive food source in the form of food bodies located on the leaf stipules. Similarly, several Acacia tree species have developed stout spines that are swollen at the base, forming a hollow structure that provides housing for ants which protect the plant. These Acacia trees also produce nectar in nectaries on their leaves as food for
6570-417: The plant's growth and vigour, and the wilting of shoots and branches caused by the insects' tunneling activities. Secondly there is the indirect damage, where the insects do little direct harm, but either transmit or allow entry of fungal, bacterial or viral infections. Although some insects are polyphagous, many are restricted to one specific crop, or group of crops. In many cases it is the larva that feeds on
6660-456: The plant, building up a nutritional store that will be used by the short-lived adult; sawfly and lepidopteran larvae feed mainly on the aerial portions of plants while beetle larvae tend to live underground, feeding on roots, or tunnel into the stem or under the bark. The true bugs, Hemiptera , have piercing and sucking mouthparts and live by sucking sap from plants. These include aphids , whiteflies and scale insects . Apart from weakening
6750-442: The plant, they encourage the growth of sooty mould on the honeydew the insects produce, which cuts out the light and reduces photosynthesis, stunting the plant's growth. They often transmit serious viral diseases between plants. The mites that cause most trouble in the field are the spider mites . These are less than 1 mm (0.04 in) in diameter, can be very numerous, and thrive in hot, dry conditions. They mostly live on
6840-413: The plants are already stressed, or where the pests have been accidentally introduced and may have no natural enemies. The pests affecting trees are predominantly insects, and many of these have also been introduced inadvertently and lack natural enemies, and some have transmitted novel fungal diseases with devastating results. Humans have traditionally performed pest control in agriculture and forestry by
6930-540: The rich landowners who wanted higher quality wines and the peasant laborers whose livelihood depended on the quantity of wine they could sell. The Riesling is the famous example for higher quality of wine. In 1435 Count John IV. of Katzenelnbogen started this successful tradition. In Burgundy , the Cistercian monks developed the concept of cru vineyards as homogeneous pieces of land that consistently produce wines each vintage that are similar. In areas like
7020-407: The roots or the aerial parts of plants and transmit viruses. Some examples are the big bud mite that transmits the reversion virus of blackcurrants , the coconut mite which can devastate coconut production, and the cereal rust mite which transmits several grass and cereal viruses. Being exceedingly minute, many plant mites are spread by wind, although others use insects or other arthropods as
7110-516: The same vineyard. In the days before precise varietal identification, let alone rigorous clonal selection , a vineyard might be planted by taking cuttings from another vineyard and therefore approximately copying its genetic makeup. This meant that one vine could be Zinfandel and the next Carignan . When making wine with little equipment to spare for separate vinification of different varieties, field blends allowed effortless, though inflexible, blending. Fermentation tanks are now cheap enough that
7200-404: The second half of the 19th century, starting with the vedalia beetle against cottony cushion scale . All these methods have been refined and developed since their discovery. Forest pests inflict costly damage, but treating them is often unaffordable, given the relatively low value of forest products compared to agricultural crops. It is also generally impossible to eradicate forest pests, given
7290-526: The site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier." There is also evidence of grape domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age , around 3200 BC. Evidence of ancient viticulture
7380-427: The tannin's most important role is during the grape's ripening stage as its function is to formulate color and body shape. Although many factors can affect the overall quality of a grape vine, the three most important are climate, slope , and soil , often collectively referred to as the terroir . Climate is the most significant external factor in determining a grape's inherent qualities. Each grape variety has
7470-455: The tree all year round, either because of their life cycle or because they rotate between different host species at different times of the year. In forestry, pests may affect various parts of the tree, from its roots and trunk to the canopy far overhead. The larvae of wood-boring beetles , for example, are notorious for spending years excavating tunnels under the bark of trees, leading to significant structural damage. These larvae only emerge into
7560-456: The two noble families who held the village jointly in the Middle Ages , while on the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side are three lozenges representing the old overlordship held by the Church at Trier . They are said to be an attribute of Saint Matthew , who is furthermore said to be buried at Trier. Then there is the inescutcheon , which shows two crossed axes. These are meant as
7650-448: The underside of leaves and puncture the plant cells to feed, with some species forming webbing. They occur on nearly all important food crops and ornamental plants, both outdoors and under glass, and include some of the most economically important pests. Another important group of mites is the gall mites which affect a wide range of plants, several mite species being major pests causing substantial economic damage to crops. They can feed on
7740-470: The use of pesticides ; however, other methods exist such as mechanical control , and recently developed biological controls . A pest is any living thing which humans consider troublesome to themselves, their possessions, or the environment. Pests can cause issues with crops, human or animal health, buildings, and wild areas or larger landscapes. An older usage of the word "pest" is of a deadly epidemic disease, specifically plague . In its broadest sense,
7830-690: The varying of planting time to reduce pests before the first century AD. The agricultural revolution in Europe saw the introduction of effective plant-based insecticides such as pyrethrum , derris , quassia , and tobacco extract. The phylloxera (a powdery mildew ) damage to the wine industry in the 19th century resulted in the development of resistant varieties and grafting , and the accidental discovery of effective chemical pesticides, Bordeaux mixture (lime and copper sulphate ) and Paris Green (an arsenic compound), both very widely used. Biological control also became established as an effective measure in
7920-497: The viticultural practices developed in this time period would become staples of European viticulture until the 18th century. Varietals were studied more intently to see which vines were the most suitable for a particular area. Around this time, an early concept of terroir emerged as wines from particular places began to develop a reputation for uniqueness. The concept of pruning for quality over quantity emerged, mainly through Cistercian labors, though it would create conflict between
8010-498: The winter months. Viticulturists are often intimately involved with winemakers, because vineyard management and the resulting grape characteristics provide the basis from which winemaking can begin. A great number of varieties are now approved in the European Union as true grapes for winegrowing and viticulture. The earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 8,000 years. The history of viticulture
8100-485: Was also an example, literally carved in stone, along with the year 1747 at Partenheim Castle, the now defunct Regierungsbezirk of Rheinhessen-Pfalz relented and officially conferred the longtime arms on the municipality in 1986. The municipality's land use breaks down as follows: Agriculture : 620 ha; Winegrowing : 162 ha; built-up areas, transport lands and greenspaces: 59 ha. In Partenheim are found: an automated teller machine , bakers , daycare ,
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