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83-398: Kashrut forbids consuming mixtures of milk and meat , consuming milk and meat at the same meal, consuming dairy foods within a period of time after consuming meat (the period varies by custom), and using the same dishes for both dairy and meat. Pareve foods, being neutral, can be consumed with either dairy or meat. Eggs that have been laid are considered pareve because they are separate from

166-499: A 2021 survey found 10% of Brits were meat abstainers with 3% of the population being pescetarians. In Great Britain as of January 2019, women between 18 and 24 years of age were the most likely demographic group to follow a pescetarian diet. In general, men were less interested in pescetarianism, and men 35 years and above were the least likely to adhere to a pescetarian diet pattern. In 2018, one survey found that people in Africa and

249-537: A closing blessing before the meat is eaten, and others view this as unnecessary. Ashkenazi Jews following kabbalistic traditions, based on the Zohar , additionally ensure that about half an hour passes after consuming dairy produce before eating meat. Some rabbis of the Middle Ages argued that after eating solid dairy products such as cheese, the hands should be washed. Shabbatai ben Meir even argues that this

332-476: A cooking vessel or utensil for up to 24 hours; his suggestion led to the principle, known as ben yomo (Hebrew: son of the day , בן יומו), that vessels and utensils should not be used to cook milk within 24 hours of being used to cook meat (and vice versa). Although, after 24 hours, some residual flavour may still reside in porous cooking vessels and utensils, some rabbis hold the opinion that such residue would become stale and fetid, hence only infusing taste for

415-411: A fatty residue in the throat and on the palate and Maimonides noted that meat stuck between the teeth might not degrade for several hours. Feivel Cohen maintained that hard cheese leaves a lingering taste in the mouth. Generally, rabbinic literature considers the collective impact of each of these issues. The Talmud reports that Mar Ukva , a respected rabbi, would not eat dairy after eating meat at

498-437: A fraction of less than 1/60 (1.67%) of the total though, in commercial pareve food production supervising agencies often try to be stricter than that. However, people with allergies can be sensitive to far lower concentrations of such ingredients — even parts-per-million concentrations — and therefore may not be able to rely on a pareve marking. The word "pareve" is also used in contemporary Israeli slang to imply that something

581-750: A kosher fish to be permitted. Pescetarian diets simplify adherence to the Judaic separation of meat and dairy products, as kosher fish is " pareve "—neither "milk" nor "meat". In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism. The society has several advocacy interests; public health, promoting healthy eating, praising pescetarianism as "the natural human diet", supporting better animal welfare, bringing awareness to

664-590: A meal when the meat is eaten first. Judah ben Simeon , a 17th-century physician in Frankfurt , argued that hard cheese is not problematic if melted. Binyomin Forst argues that leniency is proper only for cooked cheese dishes and not dishes topped with cheese. The Karaites , completely rejecting the Talmud , where the stringency of the law is strongest, have few qualms about the general mixing of meat and milk. It

747-456: A meat or dairy product into a pareve substance. For example, rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese, but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians, who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet. Likewise, some products bearing a vegan certification label do not have the status in halakha as pareve due to incidental contact with dairy ingredients or utensils that render

830-448: A mixture of milk and meat, but because the biblical regulation is triplicated they imposed three distinct regulations to represent it: Jacob ben Asher , an influential medieval rabbi, remarked that the gematria of do not boil a kid (Hebrew: לא תבשל גדי) is identical to that of it is the prohibition of eating, cooking and deriving benefit (Hebrew: ובישול והנאה), a detail that he considered highly significant. Though deriving benefit

913-417: A more ethical choice because fish and shellfish may not experience fear, pain, and suffering as more complex animals like mammals and other tetrapods do. As a counterargument, from a scientific viewpoint, there are functional areas in the brains of fish that can make them feel pain. Furthermore, fish have pain receptors similar to humans, and evidence shows that pain signals are sent from these receptors to

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996-484: A pareve food that appears dairy together with meat or vice versa. However, with the wide commercial availability of such pareve imitations of both dairy and meat foods, today this is permitted. Margarine is commonly used in place of butter, thereby enabling baked goods to be made pareve. In 2008, a shortage of kosher for Passover margarine made it difficult for kosher consumers to prepare pareve recipes. Cultured meat can be considered pareve, according to David Lau ,

1079-594: A pescetarian dietary pattern can potentially positively affect both. People may adopt a pescetarian diet out of desire to lower their dietary carbon footprint . A 2014 lifecycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions estimated that a pescetarian diet would provide a 45% reduction in emissions compared to an omnivorous diet . Research on the diets of over 55,000 UK residents found that meat-eaters had dietary greenhouse gas emissions that were about 50% higher than pescetarians. Compared to an omnivorous diet, pescetarian diets also had 64% less environmental impact overall when

1162-485: A protective fence around the biblical laws, and this was one of the three principle teachings of the Great Assembly . Mixing of milk and meat is one area of halacha where a particularly large number of "fences" have been added. Nevertheless, the rabbis of the classical and Middle Ages also introduced a number of leniencies. The classical rabbis expressed the opinion that each of the food rules could be waived if

1245-520: A rabbinic addition, and not the biblical intent, but others like Abraham Danzig and Hezekiah da Silva argued that the biblical term itself had this wider meaning. Though radiative cooking of meat with dairy produce is not listed by the classical rabbis as being among the biblically prohibited forms of cooking such mixtures, a controversy remains about using a microwave oven to cook these mixtures. The classical rabbis interpreted Leviticus 18:30 to mean that they should (metaphorically) create

1328-416: A seafood diet, which is distinguished from ordinary pescetarian diets because it discourages consumption of dairy and eggs. As of 2020 , pescetarianism has been described as a plant-based diet . Regular fish consumption and decreased red meat consumption are recognized as dietary practices that may promote health. Pescetarianism has been shown to be more popular among women than men in all regions where

1411-706: A third repetition of this prohibition in Deuteronomy . The rabbis of the Talmud gave no reason for the prohibition, but later authorities, such as Maimonides , opined that the law was connected to a prohibition of idolatry in Judaism . Obadiah Sforno and Solomon Luntschitz , rabbinic commentators living in the late Middle Ages , both suggested that the law referred to a specific Canaanite religious practice, in which young goats were cooked in their own mothers' milk, aiming to obtain supernatural assistance to increase

1494-470: A third set of pareve dishes, or at least cooking utensils, in order to enable pareve foods to be prepared and then later served with either dairy or meat meals. While fish is pareve, the Talmud warns not to consume fish directly mixed with meat, and the custom is not to eat both on the same plate if they both are eaten at the same meal. It is Chabad custom to refrain from eating fish with milk , but combining fish with dairy byproducts (cheese, butter, etc.)

1577-478: A tradition of waiting only for the one hour. The medieval tosafists stated that the practice does not apply to infants, but 18th and 19th-century rabbis, such as Abraham Danzig and Yechiel Michel Epstein, criticised those who followed lenient practices that were not traditional in their region. In the 20th century, many rabbis were in favor of leniency. Moses Stern ruled that all young children were excluded from these strictures, Obadiah Joseph made an exception for

1660-466: A waiting period following their consumption, as they are generally swallowed without being chewed and have little contact with the mouth. The laws of kashrut do not apply to pharmaceuticals taken for medical reasons. Vitamins , on the other hand, have the status of nourishment, and therefore, the laws of kashrut must be followed. While kosher households generally have two sets of dishes, one for dairy and another for meat, some kosher households also include

1743-544: Is a dietary practice in which seafood is the only source of meat in an otherwise vegetarian diet. The inclusion of other animal products , such as eggs and dairy, is optional. According to research conducted from 2017 to 2018, approximately 3% of adults worldwide are pescetarian. "Pescetarian" is a neologism formed as a portmanteau of the Italian word " pesce " ("fish") and the English word "vegetarian". The term

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1826-441: Is a superficially vague term, it was later interpreted by medieval writers to include: The classical rabbis only considered milk and meat cooked together biblically forbidden, but Jewish writers of the Middle Ages also forbade consumption of anything merely containing the mixed tastes of milk and meat. This included, for example, meat that had been soaked in milk for an extended period. The prohibition against deriving benefit , on

1909-728: Is acceptable. A much less common practice is to refrain from eating fish combined with any dairy product. Due to the restrictions in Jewish law forbidding combining milk and meat , many food items marketed to kosher consumers are made pareve, thereby modifying traditional recipes and allowing the item to be consumed either with dairy or meat. Common ingredients used as substitutes for either dairy or meat ingredients include soy and tofu , palm and coconut oils , and various vegetables. Meat analogues are used to replace real meat in recipes, and soy cheese to replace real cheese. Some meat analogues include dairy. The laws of marit ayin forbid eating

1992-632: Is for food containing dairy produce, while the other (known in Yiddish as fleishig / fleishedik and in Hebrew as besari ) is for food containing meat. Shelomo Dov Goitein writes, “the dichotomy of the kitchen into a meat and a milk section, so basic in an observant Jewish household, is … never mentioned in the Geniza ." Goitein believed that in the early Middle Ages Jewish families kept only one set of cutlery and cooking ware. According to David C. Kraemer

2075-425: Is incorrect. Some rabbinic commentators saw the law as having an ethical aspect. Rashbam argued that using the milk of an animal to cook its offspring was inhumane, based on a principle similar to that of Shiluach haken . Chaim ibn Attar compared the practice of cooking animals in their mother's milk to the slaying of nursing infants. The Talmudic rabbis believed that the biblical text only forbade cooking

2158-482: Is made in an unusual shape or consumed on the same day it is made. Even vegetarians are required to refrain from baking non-pareve bread because kashrut applies equally to all Jews. Food that contains only pareve ingredients but that comes in contact with dairy or meat dishes in the home or that is manufactured on equipment also used to manufacture dairy or meat equipment maintains the status of pareve, and may be consumed after eating dairy or meat. However, if such contact

2241-459: Is made, it may only be consumed on dairy or meat dishes respectively. Some commercial products that are pareve but have been manufactured on dairy equipment bear the letters DE after the hechscher to let the consumer know the product cannot be consumed together with meat. Still, such an item can be consumed after a meat meal . Pharmaceuticals taken for medical purposes that contain animal ingredients, while not technically pareve , do not require

2324-474: Is mediocre or that a statement lacks a clear message. Milk and meat in Jewish law The mixture of meat and dairy ( Hebrew : בשר בחלב , romanized :  basar bechalav , lit.   'meat in milk') is forbidden according to Jewish law . This dietary law, basic to kashrut , is based on two verses in the Book of Exodus , which forbid "boiling a (goat) kid in its mother's milk" and

2407-478: Is necessary if utensils such as forks were used and the cheese never touched by hands. Other rabbis of that time, like Joseph Caro , thought that if it was possible to visually verify that hands were clean, then they need not be washed; Tzvi Hirsch Spira argued that washing the hands should also be practiced for milk. Jacob ben Asher thought that washing the mouth was not sufficient to remove all residue of cheese, and suggested that eating some additional solid food

2490-474: Is only the cooking of an animal in the milk of its actual mother that is banned. While it is generally banned for the Beta Israel community of Ethiopia to prepare general mixtures of meat and milk, poultry is not included in this prohibition. However, since the movement of almost the entire Beta Israel community to Israel in the 1990s, the community has generally abandoned its old traditions and adopted

2573-477: Is prohibited in general, and questions about the status of mixtures involving their meat and milk would be somewhat academic. Nevertheless, the lack of a classical decision about milk and meat of non-kosher animals gave rise to argument in the late Middle Ages. Some, such as Yoel Sirkis and Joshua Falk , argued that mixing milk and meat from non-kosher animals should be prohibited, but others, like Shabbatai ben Meir and David HaLevi Segal , argued that, excluding

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2656-444: Is required to clean the mouth. Hard and aged cheese has long been rabbinically considered to need extra precaution, on the basis that it might have a much stronger and longer lasting taste; the risk of it leaving a fattier residue has more recently been raised as a concern. According to these rabbinic opinions, the same precautions (including a pause of up to six hours) apply to eating hard cheese before meat as apply to eating meat in

2739-528: The Mediterranean diet , which is associated with lowered risk of cardiovascular diseases . Pescetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to affect diabetes , long-term weight gain , and all-cause mortality . Concerns have been raised about consuming some fish varieties containing toxins such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), although it is possible to select fish that contain little or no mercury or moderate

2822-557: The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, pescetarianism is referred to as a form of abstinence . During fast periods, Eastern Orthodox Christians often abstain from meat, dairy, eggs, and fish, but on holidays that occur on fast days (for example, 15 August on a Wednesday or Friday), fish is allowed, while meat and dairy remain forbidden. Anthonian fasting has been considered a pescetarian-like variant of Orthodox fasting as poultry and red meat are restricted throughout

2905-615: The Arab shawarma has lamb or beef with a yogurt sauce, in Israel , most shawarma is made with dark turkey meat and is commonly served with tahini sauce. Another effect is Jewish American Chinese restaurant patronage , specially among New York Jews , who can choose among several Chinese restaurants that follow kosher rules . Pescetarian Pescetarianism ( / ˌ p ɛ s k ə ˈ t ɛər i . ə n ɪ z əm / PESK -ə- TAIR -ee-ə-niz-əm ; sometimes spelled pescatarianism )

2988-493: The Deacon specified that cheese, eggs, and fish were part of a monk's ordinary diet. Benedictine monk Walafrid Strabo commented, "Some salt, bread, leeks, fish and wine; that is our menu." The Carthusians followed a strict diet that consisted of fish, cheese, eggs, and vegetables, with only bread and water on Fridays. In the 13th century, Cistercian monks consumed fish and eggs. Ponds were created for fish farming. From

3071-400: The Hebrew phrase gəḏî-‘izzîm (גדי עזים), but the prohibition against boiling a kid... only uses the term gəḏî (גדי). Rashi , one of the most prominent talmudic commentators, argued that the term gəḏî must actually have a more general meaning, including calves and lambs, in addition to young goats. Rashi also argued that the meaning of gəḏî is still narrow enough to exclude birds, all

3154-401: The Middle Ages insisted that milk should not be placed on a table where people are eating meat, to avoid accidentally consuming milk while eating meat, and vice versa. Tzvi Hirsch Spira , an early 20th-century rabbi, argued that when this rule was created, the tables commonly in use were only large enough for one individual; Spira concludes that the rule would not apply if the table being used

3237-587: The Middle East had a high incidence of pescetarian diets (5%) when compared to other areas of the world. In Europe, the incidence of pescetarianism varied by country, according to a 2020 survey documenting the dietary practices of residents in seven European nations: on average, pescetarianism was about 3% of the EU population, with slightly higher incidence in Germany and Belgium. Pescetarianism may be perceived as

3320-558: The amount of greenhouse gas emissions, land use and cumulative energy demand were assessed together. A Japanese study in 2018 found that various diet changes could successfully reduce the Japanese food- nitrogen footprint , particularly by adopting a pescetarian diet which may reduce the impact on nitrogen. Switching from an omnivorous diet to a pescetarian diet also carries high potential in reducing American food loss because fish and shellfish contribute markedly less to food waste at

3403-464: The animal. But eggs found inside a bird after its slaughter are considered to be part of the animal and therefore have the status of meat. Commercially marketed eggs generally are not taken from slaughtered animals and therefore are pareve. Kashrut requires that common bread must be made pareve, because bread is a staple food, and there is a strong chance one may forget that the bread contains dairy or meat ingredients. Bread need not be made pareve if it

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3486-501: The ban on boiling meat in its mother's milk to really be a more general ban on boiling meat in milk, regardless of the relationship between the source of the meat and that of the milk. Substances derived from milk, such as cheese and whey , have traditionally been considered to fall under the prohibition, but milk substitutes, created from non-dairy sources, do not. However, the classical rabbis were worried that Jews using artificial milk might be misinterpreted, so they insisted that

3569-408: The biblical regulation literally only mentions boiling (Hebrew: bishul , בישול), there were questions raised in the late Middle Ages about whether this should instead be translated as cooking , and hence be interpreted as a reference to activities like broiling , baking , roasting , and frying . Lenient figures like Jacob of Lissa and Chaim ibn Attar argued that such a prohibition would only be

3652-513: The brain, enabling fish to feel pain. However, this is an ongoing debate. Some pescetarians may regard their diet as a transition to vegetarianism, while others may consider it an ethical compromise, often as a practical necessity to obtain nutrients that are absent, not easily found, or not readily bioavailable in plants. It is common for all kinds of meat-abstainers to participate in the " green movement " and be conscientious about global food sustainability and environmentalism ; switching to

3735-682: The broad meat and milk ban followed by Rabbinical Judaism. In Exodus 23:19 , the Samaritan Pentateuch adds the following passage after the prohibition: [כי עשה זאת כזבח שכח ועברה היא לאלהי יעקב] which translates, "For he who does such as that is like a forbidden offering. And this is a transgression to God of Jacob". Samaritans do not eat meat, including poultry, with dairy. They wait 6 hours after eating meat before eating dairy and 3 hours after eating dairy before eating meat. These restrictions remove certain dishes from Jewish cuisine, and induce alterations in others. For example, while

3818-662: The church expects all followers to only eat kosher foods deemed permissible by Leviticus 11. Pescetarianism (provided the fish is kosher ) conforms to Jewish dietary laws. Fish and all other seafood animals must have both fins and scales to be considered kosher. Aquatic mammals such as dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The lack of fins and scales also deems crustaceans ( e.g. shrimp, crab, lobster ) and molluscs ( e.g. oyster, clam, conch, octopus, squid) to be "treif"—non-kosher. Roe , such as caviar, must come from

3901-475: The classical era, but even "half a shiur is prohibited by the Torah". Many rabbis followed the premise that "taste is principle" ( Hebrew : ta'am k'ikar , טעם כעיקר ): in the event of an accidental mixing of milk and meat, the food could be eaten if there was no detectable change in taste. Others argued that forbidden ingredients could constitute up to half of the mixture before being disallowed. Today

3984-715: The climate change crisis and demanding seafood be sustainable and responsibly-caught. Some Hindus, by choice, follow a strict lacto-vegetarian diet and in India up to 44% of Hindus self-identify as some type of vegetarian. However, there are Hindus who consume fish. They are mainly from coastal south-western India. This community regards seafood in general as "vegetables from the sea", and refrains from eating land-based animals. Other Hindus who consume seafood are those from Bengal, Odisha, and other coastal areas. In Bengal, Hindus consume fish and are known to cook it daily. The expression of Ital eating can vary from Rasta to Rasta but

4067-679: The consumption of livestock and wild animals was banned in Japan by Emperor Tenmu , due to the influence of Buddhism and the lack of arable land. However, Tenmu did not ban the consumption of deer or wild boar. Subsequently, in the year 737 of the Nara period, the Emperor Shōmu approved the eating of fish and shellfish. During the 1200 years from the Nara period to the Meiji Restoration in

4150-484: The consumption of fish; these monks were not vegetarians, but some were pescetarians. Marcion of Sinope and his followers ate fish but no fowl or red meat. Fish was seen by the Marcionites as a holier kind of food. They consumed bread, fish, honey, milk, and vegetables. The "Hearers" of the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Manichaeism lived on a diet of fish, grain, and vegetables. Consumption of land animals

4233-520: The consumption of forbidden mixtures, foods are divided into three categories. Food in the parve category includes fish, fruit, vegetables, salt, etc.; among the Karaites and Ethiopian Jews it also includes poultry . The Talmud states that the Biblical prohibition applies only to meat and milk of domesticated kosher mammals; that is, cattle, goats, and sheep. It adds that according to

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4316-610: The consumption of mercury-containing fish. According to a 2018 global consumer survey, the majority of pescetarians, vegetarians and vegans (87% prevalence) reported that their food product choices are influenced by ideological factors, like ethical concerns, environmental impact or social responsibility. Pescetarians may be motivated by ethical concerns that are not related to animal protection or environmental protection, such as humanitarian or religious reasons. Viable sources of protein that can be consumed by food-insecure humans are not wasted on filter feeders or wild-caught fish. In both

4399-493: The cooking vessel was used to cook dairy produce within the previous 24 hours. According to Joseph Caro , the Sephardic tradition was more lenient about such things, but Moses Isserles argued that such leniency was unreliable. In light of these issues, kashrut-observant Jews can take the precaution of maintaining two distinct sets of crockery and cutlery ; one set (known in Yiddish as milchig and in Hebrew as halavi )

4482-544: The data on sex ratio is available. In 2018, Ipsos MORI reported 73% of people worldwide followed a diet where both meat and non-animal products were regularly consumed, with 14% considered as flexitarians , 5% vegetarians, 3% vegans, and 3% pescetarians. These are similar to the results collected by GlobalData just a year earlier; where 23% of the sample had below average meat consumption, 5% had vegetarian diets, 2% had vegan diets and 3% had pescetarian diets. Globally, pescetarian diets seem to have increased in popularity in

4565-433: The early 14th century, Benedictine and Cistercian monks no longer abstained from consuming meat of four-footed animals. In 1336, Pope Benedict XII permitted monks to eat meat four days a week outside of the fast season if it was not served in the refectory. The anchorites of England ate a pescetarian diet of fish seasoned with apples and herbs, bean or pea soup and milk, butter and oil. Francis William Newman , who

4648-405: The foods. Later rabbinic writers pointed out exceptions to the rule. Chaim ibn Attar, an 18th-century kabbalist, ruled that sitting at the same table as a non-Jew eating non-kosher food was permissible; Yechiel Michel Epstein , a 19th-century rabbi, argued that the risk was sufficiently reduced if individuals sat far enough apart that the only way to share food was to leave the table. To prevent

4731-445: The former Chief Rabbi of Israel . The word "pareve" on a food label may imply the product is suitable for vegetarians or vegans , but this is not always true. Fish and fish products, like fish gelatin , are pareve, but in general not vegetarian and never vegan (but would be consumed by pescetarians ). Honey , egg and egg products, like mayonnaise and albumen , are pareve and vegetarian but not vegan. Some processes convert

4814-438: The general ban on non-kosher animals, such mixtures should not be prohibited. Rashi expressed the opinion that the reference to mother's milk must exclude fowl from the regulation, since only mammals produce milk. According to Shabbethai Bass , Rashi was expressing the opinion that the reference to a mother was only present to ensure that birds were clearly excluded from the prohibition; Bass argued that Rashi regarded

4897-430: The ill, and Joseph Chaim Sonnenfeld exempted nursing women. It has traditionally been considered less problematic to eat dairy products before meat, on the assumption that dairy products leave neither fatty residue in the throat, nor fragments between the teeth. Many 20th century Orthodox rabbis say that washing the mouth out between eating dairy and meat is sufficient. Some argue that there should also be recitation of

4980-498: The item dairy, while still qualifying by the vegan certification as containing no animal products. Those allergic to dairy foods may assume items labeled as "pareve" to be dairy-free, though this is not always the case. Kashrut has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non-kosher use, but that might be inadequate for those with allergies, vegetarians, or adherents to other religious statutes. For example, dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that

5063-487: The latter half of the 19th century, Japanese people ate vegetarian-style meals, and on special occasions, seafood was served. Exceptions were wild fowl served amongst the Heian nobility, and when Europeans arrived in Japan in the 15th century, the Japanese diet included boar meat. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from

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5146-436: The meatless diet, some biographers suspect he may have eaten fish as well at some points, which would have made him not a vegetarian but a pescatarian by today's standards. Many of Pythagoras's philosophies inspired Plato , who advocated for the moral and nutritional superiority of vegetarian-oriented diets. In Plato's ideal republic, a healthy diet would consist of cereals, seeds, beans, fruit, milk, honey and fish. In 675,

5229-424: The mid-to-late 2010s; only 40% of pescetarians surveyed had been adhering to the diet for more than a couple years and another 18% reported adhering to diet for about a year. A 2018 poll of 2,000 United Kingdom adults found that ≈12% of adults adhered to a meat-free diet; with 2% vegan, 6–7% ovo-lacto-vegetarian , and 4% pescetarian. Different studies and survey have found a more modest number of meat-abstainers;

5312-400: The milk be clearly marked to indicate its source. In the classical era, the main form of artificial milk was almond milk , so the classical rabbis imposed the rule that almonds must be placed around such milk; in the Middle Ages, there was some debate about whether this had to be done during cooking as well as eating, or whether it was sufficient to merely do this during the meal. Although

5395-488: The other hand, was seen as being more nuanced, with several early modern authorities (including Moses Isserles and Taz ) arguing that this restriction only applied to the milk and meat of g'di , not to the much wider range of milks and meats prohibited by the rabbis; other prominent medieval rabbis, like Solomon Luria , disagreed, believing that the prohibition of deriving benefit referred to mixtures of all meats and milks. The Book of Genesis refers to young goats by

5478-441: The portion of food violating the regulations was less than a certain size, known as a shiur ( Hebrew : שיעור , lit.   'size'), unless it was still possible to taste or smell it; for the "milk and meat" regulations, this minimal size was a ke'zayit ( כזית ), literally meaning anything "similar to an olive" in size. However, the shiur is merely the minimum amount that leads to formal punishment in

5561-438: The practice of keeping separate sets of dishes developed only in the late 14th or 15th centuries. In earlier times, the household's one set of cooking ware was kashered between dairy and meat (and vice versa). Alternatively, users waited overnight for the meat or dairy gravy absorbed in a pot's walls to become insignificant ( lifgam ) before using the pot for the other species (meat or dairy). Rashi stated that meat leaves

5644-516: The previous meal. Since most Orthodox Sephardi Jews consider the Shulchan Aruch authoritative, they regard its suggestion of waiting six hours as mandatory. Ashkenazi Jews , however, have various customs. Orthodox Jews of Eastern European background who follow Minhag Polin usually wait for six hours, although those of German ancestry who follow Minhag Ashkenaz traditionally wait for only three hours, and those of Dutch ancestry have

5727-400: The primary, retail and consumer levels than both red meat and poultry. Additionally, water conservation may be a motivator; a multinational study found that switching a conventional diet for a balanced pescetarian diet could reduce dietary water footprint by 33% to 55%. A common reason for adoption of pescetarianism may be health-related, such as fish and plant food consumption as part of

5810-401: The rabbis apply the principle of batel b'shishim ('nullified in sixty'), that is, permissible so long as forbidden ingredients constitute no more than 1 ⁄ 60 of the whole. Due to the premise that "taste is principle", parve (i.e. 'neutral') foods are considered to take on the same "meat/dairy produce" classification as anything they are cooked with. Prominent rabbis of

5893-408: The rabbis grant pareve status to products manufactured with it. Nevertheless, someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue, and that is why some products that are legitimately pareve carry "milk" warnings. The general rule on such matters is that an item accidentally containing dairy ingredients could be considered pareve if the dairy is present in

5976-434: The same meal as meat. Therefore, it was sufficient to just wait until a new meal —which to them simply meant clearing the table, reciting a particular blessing , and cleaning their mouths. Some later rabbinic writers, like Moses Isserles , and significant texts, like the Zohar (as noted by Vilna Gaon and Daniel Josiah Pinto ), argued that a meal still did not qualify as new unless at least an hour had passed since

6059-474: The same meal, and had a father who would wait an entire day after eating meat before eating dairy produce. Jacob ben Meir speculated that Mar Ukva's behaviour was merely a personal choice, rather than an example he expected others to follow, but prominent rabbis of the Middle Ages argued that Mar Ukva's practice must be treated as a minimum standard of behaviour. Maimonides argued that time was required between meat and dairy produce because meat can become stuck in

6142-410: The teeth, a problem he suggested would last for about six hours after eating it; this interpretation was shared by Solomon ben Aderet , a prominent pupil of his, and Asher ben Jehiel , who gained entry to the rabbinate by Solomon ben Aderet's approval, as well as by the later Shulchan Aruch . By contrast, tosafists argued that the key detail was just the avoidance of dairy produce appearing at

6225-538: The undomesticated kosher animals (for example, chevrotains and antelope ), and all of the non-kosher animals. The Talmudic writers had a similar analysis, but believed that since domesticated kosher animals (sheep, goats, and cattle) have similar meat to birds and to the non-domestic kosher land-animals, they should prohibit these latter meats too, creating a general prohibition against mixing milk and meat from any kosher animal, excepting fish. Consumption of non- kosher animals (e.g., pigs , camels , and turtles )

6308-562: The view of Rabbi Akiva, the Rabbis instituted a protective decree extending the law to the meat and milk of wild kosher mammals, such as deer, as well as the meat of kosher poultry, such as chickens. The Shulchan Aruch follows this approach. Classical Jewish authorities argue that foods lose parve status if treated in such a way that they absorb the taste of milk or meat during cooking, soaking, or salting. Tosafist Samuel ben Meir , argued that infused tastes could endure in

6391-484: The worse (Hebrew: nosen taam lifgam , נותן טעם לפגם), which they do not regard as violating the ban against mixing the tastes of milk and meat. Since parve food is reclassified if it takes on the flavour of meat or dairy produce, Ashkenazi Jews traditionally forbid eating parve contents of a pot that has been used within 24 hours to cook meat, if the parve contents would be eaten with dairy produce. Their tradition similarly forbids eating parve foods with meat if

6474-504: The year but fish, eggs, oils , dairy and wine are allowed most days. Pescetarianism is relatively popular among Seven-day Adventists when compared to the general population; in the 2000s 10% of North American Seven-day Adventists who were surveyed reported adhering to a pescetarian diet. The higher popularity is likely due to the church promoting a "health message" to its followers and considering meat-consumption to be unfavorable. Adventists who eat seafood do not eat shellfish because

6557-409: The yield of their flocks. More recently, a theogonous text named the birth of the gracious gods , found during the rediscovery of Ugarit , has been interpreted as saying that a Levantine ritual to ensure agricultural fertility involved the cooking of a young goat in its mother's milk, followed by the mixture being sprinkled upon the fields. Still more recent sources argue that this translation

6640-631: Was President of the Vegetarian Society from 1873 to 1883, made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian like pescetarians. Eventually, in the 1890s, Newman himself switched from following an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet to a pescetarian diet, with the rationale that fish do not waste land space, are plentiful due to high reproduction rates, do not care for their young and have no parental feelings to violate, and can be captured and slaughtered in ways that inflict minimal pain. A 2016 book Seagan Eating promoted

6723-596: Was coined in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s. "Pesco-vegetarian" is a synonymous term that is seldom used outside of academic research, but it has sometimes appeared in other American publications and literature since at least 1980. The first vegetarians in written western history may have been the Pythagoreans , a title derived from the Greek philosopher Pythagoras . Though Pythagoras loaned his name to

6806-500: Was forbidden, based on the Manichaean belief that "fish, being born in and of the waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other fishes, are free from the taint which pollutes all animals". The Rule of Saint Benedict insisted upon total abstinence of meat from four-footed animals, except in cases of the sick. Benedictine monks thus followed a diet based on vegetables, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, and fish. Paul

6889-415: Was large, and the milk was out of reach of the person eating meat (and vice versa). The rabbis of the Middle Ages discussed the issue of people eating milk and meat at the same table. Jacob ben Asher suggested that each individual should eat from different tablecloths, while Moses Isserles argued that a large and obviously unusual item should be placed between the individuals, as a reminder to avoid sharing

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