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70-459: During the early years of the new Mexican republic there was widespread civil disorder as factions competed for control of the country. The fighting often resulted in the destruction or looting of private property . Average citizens had few options for claiming compensation as they had no representatives to speak on their behalf. Foreigners whose property was damaged or destroyed by rioters or bandits were usually also unable to obtain compensation from

140-470: A casus foederis involves offenses or threats against its ally—usually one bound by a mutual defense pact. Either may be considered an act of war . A declaration of war usually contains a description of the casus belli that has led the party in question to declare war on another party. The term casus belli came into widespread use in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries through

210-597: A casus belli . Prior to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , Russia recognized the separatist republics in Donetsk and Luhansk , and the alliance between them was ratified in their parliaments, thus creating a usable casus belli . Russia also claimed a genocide was being committed against Russian speakers in Ukraine by neo-Nazi groups and that the Ukrainian government were neo-Nazis. A false-flag operation

280-489: A title or a certificate of ownership. The rights to a property may be transferred from one "owner" to another. A transfer tax is a tax on the passing of title to property from one person (or entity) to another. An owner may request that, after death, private property be transferred to family members, through inheritance . In certain cases, ownership may be lost to the public interest. Private real estate may be confiscated or used for public purposes, for example, to build

350-573: A "natural right" that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy: the labor theory of property . This stated that property is a natural result of labor improving upon nature; and thus by labor expenditure, the laborer becomes entitled to its produce. Influenced by the rise of mercantilism , Locke argued that private property was antecedent to and thus independent of government. Locke distinguished between "common property", by which he meant common land , and property in consumer goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land ownership

420-408: A bundle is composed of a set of rights that allows the owner of the asset to control it and decide on its use, claim the value generated by it, exclude others from using it, and the right to transfer the ownership (set of rights over the asset) of it to another holder. In Marxian economics and socialist politics, a distinction is made between "private property" and " personal property ". The former

490-577: A casus belli to initiate the Second World War. In his autobiography Mein Kampf , Adolf Hitler had in the 1920s advocated a policy of Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people , which in practical terms meant German territorial expansion into Eastern Europe. In August 1939, to implement the first phase of this policy, Germany 's Nazi government under Hitler's leadership staged

560-524: A component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system . In response to the socialist critique, the Austrian School economist Ludwig Von Mises argued that private property rights are a requisite for what he called "rational" economic calculation and that the prices of goods and services cannot be determined accurately enough to make efficient economic calculation without having clearly defined private-property rights. Mises argued that

630-448: A given period. Marx's conception of private property has proven influential for many subsequent economic theories and for communist , socialist , and anarchist political movements, and led to the widespread association of private property—particularly private property in the means of production —with capitalism . Private property is a legal concept defined and enforced by a country's political system . The area of law that deals with

700-464: A hundred barrels of flour on the beach at the mouth of the bay, thus giving Flour Bluff its name. The United States soon sent the schooner Woodbury to help the French in their blockade. Meanwhile, acting without explicit government authority, Antonio López de Santa Anna , known for his military leadership, came out of retirement from his hacienda named "Manga de Clavo" near Xalapa and surveyed

770-465: A last resort or plan ( ultima ratio ) and that it has "just cause" for doing so. Modern international law recognizes at least three lawful justifications for waging war : self-defense, defense of an ally required by the terms of a treaty, and approval by the United Nations. Proschema (plural proschemata ) is the equivalent Greek term, first popularized by Thucydides in his History of

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840-520: A peace treaty was signed. As part of said treaty the Mexican government agreed to pay 600,000 pesos as damages to French citizens while France received promises for future trade commitments in place of war indemnities. However, this amount was never paid and that was later used as one of the justifications for the second French intervention in Mexico of 1861. Following the Mexican victory in 1867 and

910-591: A peaceful solution. The Spanish investigation found that the explosion had been caused by spontaneous combustion of the coal bunkers, but the US Sampson Board's Court of Inquiry ruled that the explosion had been caused by an external explosion from a torpedo. The McKinley administration did not cite the explosion as a casus belli , but others were already inclined to go to war with Spain over perceived atrocities and loss of control in Cuba. Advocates of war used

980-538: A plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003, citing these reasons as justification for military action. Since-declassified National Intelligence Estimates (NIE's) indicate that any certainty may have been overstated in justification of armed intervention; the extent, origin and intent of these overstatements cannot be conclusively determined from the NIE. After

1050-646: A prominent role during the Six-Day War of 1967. The Israeli government had a short list of casūs belli , acts that it would consider provocations justifying armed retaliation. The most important was a blockade of the Straits of Tiran leading into Eilat , Israel's only port to the Red Sea , through which Israel received much of its oil. After several border incidents between Israel and Egypt 's allies Syria and Jordan , Egypt expelled UNEF peacekeepers from

1120-522: A public justification for attacking another country, both to galvanize internal support for the war and to gain the support of potential allies. In the post–World War II era , the UN Charter prohibits signatory countries from engaging in war except: 1) as a means of defending themselves—or an ally where treaty obligations require it—against aggression; 2) unless the UN as a body has given prior approval to

1190-496: A road. The legal framework of a country or society defines some of the practical implications of private property. There are no expectations that these rules will define a rational and consistent model of economics or social system. Although contemporary neoclassical economics —currently the dominant school of economics—rejects some of the assumptions of the early philosophers underpinning classical economics, it has been argued that neoclassical economics continues to be influenced by

1260-503: A social relationship in which the property owner takes possession of anything that another person or group produces with that property and capitalism depends on private property. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxist analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its broader critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism. Although there is considerable disagreement among socialists about

1330-424: A socialist system, which by definition would lack private property in the factors of production, would be unable to determine appropriate price valuations for the factors of production. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible. In capitalism , ownership can be viewed as a "bundle of rights" over an asset that entitles its holder to a strong form of authority over it. Such

1400-422: A state entity, and from collective or cooperative property, which is owned by one or more non-governmental entities . John Locke described private property as a Natural Law principle arguing that when a person mixes their labor with nature, the labor enters the object conferring individual ownership . Private property is foundational to capitalism , an economic system based on the private ownership of

1470-412: Is another name for monopoly and can hamper allocative efficiency. Through the use of taxation and modified Vickrey auctions , they argue that partial common property ownership is a more efficient and just way to organize the economy. The justifications for private property rights have also been critiqued as tools of empire that enable land appropriation. According to academic commentator Brenna Bhandar,

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1540-470: Is defined as the means of production about private ownership over an economic enterprise based on socialized production and wage labor whereas the latter is defined as consumer goods or goods produced by an individual. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership . Private property in the means of production is the central element of capitalism criticized by socialists. In Marxist literature, private property refers to

1610-410: Is distinguished from private property ownership and Western understandings of land law . Casus belli A casus belli (from Latin casus belli  'occasion for war'; pl.   casus belli ) is an act or an event that either provokes or is used to justify a war . A casus belli involves direct offenses or threats against the nation declaring the war, whereas

1680-600: Is known as a pretext . This section outlines a number of the more famous and/or controversial cases of casus belli which have occurred in modern times. Europeans had access to Chinese ports as outlined in the Treaty of Nanking from the First Opium War . France used the execution of Auguste Chapdelaine as a casus belli for the Second Opium War . On February 29, 1856, Chapdelaine, a French missionary,

1750-730: The Gleiwitz incident , which was used as a casus belli for the invasion of Poland the following September. Nazi forces used concentration camp prisoners posing as Poles on 31 August 1939, to attack the German radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz, Upper Silesia , Germany (since 1945: Gliwice , Poland) on the eve of World War II. Poland 's allies, the UK and France , subsequently declared war on Germany in accordance with their alliance. The United States would declare war on Japan after

1820-721: The Sinai Peninsula , established a military presence at Sharm el-Sheikh , and announced a blockade of the straits, prompting Israel to cite its casus belli in opening hostilities against Egypt. During the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War , China's leader Deng Xiaoping told the United States that its plan to fight the Vietnamese was revenge for Vietnam's toppling of the Khmer Rouge regime of Cambodia , an ally of China. However Chinese nationalists have argued that

1890-456: The Union . Historian David Herbert Donald (1996) concluded that President Abraham Lincoln 's "repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire

1960-543: The annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014, Russian President Vladimir Putin argued that Crimea and other regions "were not part of Ukraine" after it was taken in the 18th century. The ethnic Russian population in Crimea and eastern Ukraine has been seen as a casus belli for Russia's annexation. The Foreign Ministry claimed that Ukraine tried to seize Crimean government buildings, citing this as

2030-464: The enclosure of agricultural land in England, especially as debated in the 17th and 18th centuries, accompanied efforts in philosophy and political thought—by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), James Harrington (1611–1677) and John Locke (1632–1704), for example—to address the phenomenon of property ownership . In arguing against supporters of absolute monarchy , John Locke conceptualized property as

2100-491: The means of production and their operation for profit . As a legal concept, private property is defined and enforced by a country's political system . The first evidence of private property may date back to the Babylonians in 1800 BC, as evidenced by the archeological discovery of Plimpton 322 , a clay tablet used for calculating property boundaries. However, written discussions of private property were not seen until

2170-594: The no-fly zones as its stated casus belli . Cited by the George W. Bush administration was Saddam Hussein 's weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program. The administration claimed that Iraq had not conformed with its obligation to disarm under past UN Resolutions, and that Saddam Hussein was actively attempting to acquire a nuclear weapons capability as well as enhance an existing arsenal of chemical and biological weapons. Secretary of State Colin Powell addressed

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2240-413: The working population by their claim to ownership in the form of stock or private equity. This exploitative arrangement is perpetuated due to the structure of capitalist society. Capitalism is regarded as a class system akin to historical class systems like slavery and feudalism . Private ownership has also been criticized on non-Marxist ethical grounds by advocates of market socialism . According to

2310-484: The Mexican government and they began to appeal to their own governments for help and compensation. Commercial relationships between France and Mexico existed prior to Spain's recognition of Mexico's independence in 1830, and after the establishment of diplomatic relationships France rapidly became Mexico's third largest trade partner. However, French goods were subject to higher taxes as France had yet to secure trade agreements similar to those which had been established by

2380-525: The Peloponnesian War . The proschemata are the stated reasons for waging war, which may or may not be the same as the real reasons, which Thucydides called prophasis ( πρóφασις ). Thucydides argued that the three primary real reasons for waging war are reasonable fear, honor, and interest, while the stated reasons involve appeals to nationalism or fearmongering (as opposed to descriptions of reasonable, empirical causes for fear). Countries need

2450-546: The Persian Empire, and emerged in the Western tradition at least as far back as Plato . Before the 18th century, English speakers generally used the word "property" about land ownership . In England , "property" came to have a legal definition in the 17th century. Private property defined as property owned by commercial entities emerged with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. The issue of

2520-507: The United States and United Kingdom, Mexico's two largest trade partners. In a complaint to King Louis-Philippe, a French pastry chef known only as Monsieur Remontel claimed that in 1832 Mexican officers looted his shop in Tacubaya (then a town on the outskirts of Mexico City ). However, Mexican sources claim that the officers, from Santa Anna's government, simply refused to pay their bills. Remontel demanded 60,000 pesos as reparations for

2590-672: The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In 1941, acting once again in accordance with the policy of Lebensraum, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union , using the casus belli of preemptive war to justify the act of aggression. Many historians have suggested that the Second Gulf of Tonkin Incident was a manufactured pretext for the Vietnam War . North Vietnamese Naval officials have publicly stated that during

2660-717: The city of Veracruz , which was the most important port on the Gulf coast. French forces captured Veracruz by December 1838 and Mexico declared war on France. With trade cut off, the Mexicans began smuggling imports in Mexico via Corpus Christi (then part of the Republic of Texas ). Fearing that France would blockade the Republic's ports as well, a battalion of Texan forces began patrolling Corpus Christi Bay to stop Mexican smugglers. One smuggling party abandoned their cargo of about

2730-471: The collapse of the Second French Empire in 1870, Mexico and France would not resume diplomatic relationships until 1880 when both countries renounced claims related to the wars. Private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities . Private property is distinguishable from public property , which is owned by

2800-710: The creation or dissolution of countries, the defence of the integrity of countries, dynastic succession, and the defence of co-religionists or co-nationals. He pointed out that in the modern field of peace and conflict studies , scholars also frequently list causes such as "struggle for power, arms races and conflict spirals, ethnicity and nationalism, domestic political regime type and leadership change, economic interdependence and trade, territory, climate change-induced scarcity, and so on". In The Causes of War (1972), Australian historian Geoffrey Blainey mentioned general causes such as miscalculation, as well as specific causes such as "Death Watch and Scapegoat Wars", and emphasised

2870-522: The damage (his shop was valued at less than 1,000 pesos). In view of Remontel's complaint (which gave its name to the ensuing conflict) and of other complaints from French nationals (among them the looting in 1828 of French shops at the Parian market and the execution in 1837 of a French citizen accused of piracy), in 1838 prime minister Louis-Mathieu Molé demanded from Mexico the payment of 600,000 pesos (3 million Francs ) in damages, an enormous sum for

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2940-573: The defenses of Veracruz. He offered his services to the government, which ordered him to fight the French by any means necessary. He led Mexican forces against the French and fought at the Battle of Veracruz in 1838. In a skirmish with the rear guard of the French, Santa Anna was wounded in the leg by French grapeshot . His leg was amputated and buried with full military honors. Exploiting his wounds with eloquent propaganda, Santa Anna catapulted back to power. The French forces withdrew on 9 March 1839 after

3010-571: The direct cause of entering the war was the German invasion and occupation of Belgium , violating Belgian neutrality which Britain was bound by treaty to uphold. In 1917, the German Empire sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico, in which they tried to persuade Mexico to join the war and fight against the United States, for which they would be rewarded Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, all former Mexican territories. This telegram

3080-466: The economist James Yunker, the ethical case for market socialism is that because passive property income requires no mental or physical exertion on the part of the recipient, and its appropriation by a small group of private owners is the source of the vast inequalities in contemporary capitalism, social ownership in a market economy would resolve the major cause of social inequality and its accompanying social ills. Weyl and Posner argue that private property

3150-533: The extent to which an owner will be able to exercise rights over the same. The rights to private property often come with limitations. For example, local government may enforce rules about what kind of building may be built on private land ( building code ), or whether a historical building may be demolished or not. Theft is common in many societies, and the extent to which central administration will pursue property crime varies enormously. Some forms of private property are uniquely identifiable and may be described in

3220-403: The first shot; they did just that." Confederate veteran William Watson opined in 1887 that up until that point, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward had not been able to find 'a just cause to declare war against the seceded States', but Sumter gave him 'the casus belli he had sought'. Watson lamented how Jefferson Davis and other Confederate leaders were 'vainglorious[ly]' celebrating

3290-411: The form of government". Smith further argued that civil government could not exist without property, as the government's main function was to define and safeguard property ownership. In the 19th century, the economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883) provided an influential analysis of the development and history of property formations and their relationship to the technical productive forces of

3360-413: The government requests that owners pay for the privilege of ownership. A property tax is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property, usually levied on real estate . The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. It may be imposed annually or at the time of a real estate transaction , such as in real estate transfer tax . Under a property-tax system,

3430-429: The government requires or performs an appraisal of the monetary value of each property, and tax is assessed in proportion to that value. The four broad types of property taxes are land , improvements to land (immovable human-made objects, such as buildings), personal property (movable human-made objects), and intangible property . The social and political context in which private property is administered will determine

3500-510: The importance of mundane factors such as weather. Theodore K. Rabb and Robert I. Rotberg explored the roots of major conflicts as a mixture of factors on the international, domestic and individual level in The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (1989). Kalevi Holsti catalogued and categorised wars from 1648 to 1989 according to 24 categories of "issues that generated wars". A casus belli intentionally based on inaccurate facts

3570-517: The land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner . If the owners must pay property taxes , this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current. Private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral . Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy . Socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in

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3640-586: The language implemented in property legislation dictates colonized peoples as unable to effectively own and utilize their land. It is suggested that personal rights are interchangeable with property rights, therefore communities that utilize communal methods of land ownership are not equally validated by private property ideals. It is also argued by critical race theorist Cheryl Harris that race and property rights have been conflated over time, with only those qualities unique to white settlement recognized legally. Indigenous use of land, focusing on common ownership,

3710-430: The legacy of natural moral theory and the concept of natural rights , which has led to the presentation of private market exchange and private property rights as "natural rights" inherent in nature. Economic liberals (defined as those who support a private sector -driven market economy) consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society. They believe private ownership of land ensures

3780-447: The means of production for social ownership or public property . Socialists generally argue that private property relations limit the potential of the productive forces in the economy when the productive activity becomes a collective activity, where the role of the capitalist becomes redundant (as a passive owner). Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the class distinctions between owners and workers and as

3850-428: The operation. The UN also reserves the right to ask member nations to intervene against non-signatory countries that embark on wars of aggression . Braumoeller (2019) stated: "However idiosyncratic the casus belli may seem, however, there generally is one ... The issues that prompt most wars fit fairly well into one of a fairly manageable number of categories." He broadly summarised classical issues as territory,

3920-612: The rallying cry, "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!" Austria-Hungary 's casus belli against Serbia in July 1914 was based upon Serbia 's refusal to investigate the involvement of Serbian government officials in the equipping, training and paying the assassins who murdered Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo . The Serbian government refused the Austrian Démarche, and Austria-Hungary declared war. For Britain,

3990-471: The rationale for military action even without a formal declaration of war (as in: the lead up to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution ). In formally articulating a casus belli , a government typically lays out its reasons for going to war, its intended means of prosecuting the war, and the steps that others might take to dissuade it from going to war. It attempts to demonstrate that it is going to war only as

4060-462: The real casus belli was Vietnam's poor treatment of its ethnic Chinese population , as well as suspicion of Vietnam trying to consolidate Cambodia with Soviet backing. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003 , it cited Iraq's non-compliance with the terms of cease-fire agreement for the 1990–1991 Gulf War , as well as planning in the 1993 attempted assassination of former President George H. W. Bush and firing on coalition aircraft enforcing

4130-715: The second Gulf of Tonkin Incident (4 August). The North Vietnamese claimed that on August 2, US destroyer USS Maddox was hit by one torpedo and that one of the American aircraft had been shot down in North Vietnamese territorial waters. The PAVN Museum in Hanoi displays "Part of a torpedo boat ... which successfully chased away the USS Maddox August 2nd, 1964". The casus belli for the Vietnam War

4200-457: The second incident the USS ; Maddox was never fired on by North Vietnamese naval forces. In the documentary film The Fog of War , then-US Defense Secretary Robert McNamara concedes the attack during the second incident did not happen, though he says that he and President Johnson believed it did so at the time. The first Gulf of Tonkin Incident (2 August) should not be confused with

4270-465: The subject is called property law . The enforcement of property law concerning private property is a matter of public expense. Defence of property is a common method of justification used by defendants who argue that they should not be held liable for any loss and injury that they have caused because they were acting to protect their property . Courts have generally ruled that the use of force may be acceptable. In many political systems,

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4340-574: The time, when the typical daily wage in Mexico City was about one peso (8 Mexican reals ). When President Anastasio Bustamante made no payment, the French king ordered a fleet under Rear Admiral Charles Baudin to declare and carry out a blockade of all Mexican ports on the Gulf of Mexico from Yucatán to the Rio Grande , to bombard the Mexican fortress of San Juan de Ulúa , and to seize

4410-446: The validity of certain aspects of Marxist analysis, the majority of socialists are sympathetic to Marx's views on exploitation and alienation. Socialists critique the private appropriation of property income because such income does not correspond to a return on any productive activity and is generated by the working class , it represents exploitation. The property-owning (capitalist) class lives off passive property income produced by

4480-658: The victory at Sumter, while forgetting that making the first move had given the Confederacy the immediate internationally negative reputation of being the aggressor, and had granted Seward 'the undivided sympathy of the North'. The Maine was a United States Navy ship that sank in Havana Harbor , Spanish Cuba on February 15, 1898. While the destruction of the Maine did not result in an immediate declaration of war with Spain, it did create an atmosphere that precluded

4550-431: The writings of Hugo Grotius (1653), Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1707), and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1732), among others, and due to the rise of the political doctrine of jus ad bellum or " just war theory". The term is also used informally to refer to any "just cause" a nation may claim for entering into a conflict. It is used to describe the case for war given before the term came into wide use, and to describe

4620-575: Was also considered by Russia, according to US, UK, and Ukrainian intelligence. On October 7, 2023, Palestinian militant groups , led by Hamas , launched a major attack into Israeli territory from the Gaza Strip . This operation was called 'Operation Al-Aqsa Flood' by Hamas. In response, the Israel Defense Forces launched a counteroffensive, officially named 'Operation Iron Swords'. Following reports that Egypt had given Israel

4690-682: Was intercepted by the British, then relayed to the U.S., which led to President Woodrow Wilson then using it to convince Congress to join World War I alongside the Allies. The Mexican president at the time, Venustiano Carranza, had a military commission assess the feasibility, which concluded that this would not be feasible for a number of reasons. In Japanese Manchuria , Japan staged the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 as

4760-638: Was killed in the province of Guangxi , which was not open to foreigners. In response, British and French forces quickly took control of Guangzhou (Canton). While long-term conflict between the Northern and Southern States (mainly due to moral questions caused by slavery , as well as socio-economic disparities) was the cause of the American Civil War , the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter (April 12–14, 1861) served as casus belli for

4830-655: Was that it led to improved land management and cultivation over common land. In the 18th century, during the Industrial Revolution , the moral philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723–1790), in contrast to Locke, distinguished between the "right to property" as an acquired right, and natural rights . Smith confined natural rights to "liberty and life". Smith also drew attention to the relationship between employee and employer and identified that property and civil government were dependent upon each other, recognizing that "the state of property must always vary with

4900-456: Was the second incident. On August 4, USS Maddox was launched to the North Vietnamese coast to "show the flag" after the first incident. The US authorities claimed that two Vietnamese boats tried to attack USS Maddox and were sunk. The government of North Vietnam denied the second incident completely. Deniability played favorably into the propaganda efforts of North Vietnam throughout the war, and for some years to follow. A casus belli played

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