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75-445: Pedagogy ( / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ dʒ i , - ɡ oʊ dʒ i , - ɡ ɒ ɡ i / ), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching , is the theory and practice of learning , and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers

150-503: A balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student ( The Child and the Curriculum, Dewey, 1902). Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. He envisioned a divergence from the mastery of a pre-selected set of skills to the cultivation of autonomy and critical-thinking within

225-530: A child". It is pronounced variously, as / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ dʒ i / , / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ oʊ dʒ i / , or / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ ɡ i / . The related word pedagogue has had a negative connotation of pedantry , dating from at least the 1650s; a related expression is educational theorist . The term "pedagogy" is also found in the English discourse, but it is more broadly discussed in other European languages, such as French and German . In

300-403: A differentiated strategy in pedagogy and not the traditional approach for teachers to accomplish goals efficiently. American author and educator Carol Ann Tomlinson defined Differentiated Instruction as "teachers' efforts in responding to inconsistencies among students in the classroom." Differentiation refers to methods of teaching. She explained that Differentiated Instruction gives learners

375-399: A feedback to the didactic system. Didactic research has to account for all the aforementioned steps of didactic transposition. The teacher is given the knowledge or content to be taught to students in what is called a teaching situation. The teaching or didactic situation is represented by a triangle with three vertices: the knowledge or content to be taught, the teacher, and the student. This

450-635: A fulfillment of the soul, and by fulfilling the soul the body subsequently benefited. Plato viewed physical education for all as a necessity to a stable society. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) composed a treatise, On Education , which was subsequently lost. However, he renounced Plato's view in subsequent works, advocating for a common education mandated to all citizens by the State. A small minority of people residing within Greek city-states at this time were considered citizens, and thus Aristotle still limited education to

525-480: A general analytic theory on three levels: The discipline of didactics is interested in both theoretical knowledge and practical activities related to teaching, learning and their conditions. It is concerned with the content of teaching (the "what"), the method of teaching (the "how") and the historical, cultural and social justifications of curricular choices (the "why"). It focuses on the individual learner, their cognitive characteristics and functioning when they learn

600-483: A given content and become a knowing subject. The perspective of educational reality in didactics is drawn extensively from cognitive psychology and the theory of teaching, and sometimes from social psychology. Didactics is descriptive and diachronic ("what is" and "what was"), as opposed to pedagogy, the other discipline related to educational theorizing, which is normative or prescriptive and synchronic ("what should or ought to be") in nature. Didactics can be said to provide

675-563: A minority within Greece. Aristotle advocates physical education should precede intellectual studies. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35 – 100 CE) published his pedagogy in Institutio Oratoria (95 CE). He describes education as a gradual affair, and places certain responsibilities on the teacher. He advocates for rhetorical, grammatical, scientific, and philosophical education. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155 – 240 CE)

750-505: A pedagogue ( pædagog ) is broadly speaking a practitioner of pedagogy, but the term is primarily reserved for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries ). A pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, within this restrictive definition, e.g. in retirement homes , prisons , orphanages , and human resource management . When working with at-risk families or youths they are referred to as social pedagogues ( socialpædagog ). The pedagogue's job

825-405: A science and more as an art or a craft . This characterization puts more emphasis on the practical aspect of pedagogy, which may involve various forms of " tacit knowledge that is hard to put into words". This approach is often based on the idea that the most central aspects of teaching are only acquired by practice and cannot be easily codified through scientific inquiry. In this regard, pedagogy

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900-541: A series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The education is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som pædagog ). It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to

975-422: A teacher in a teaching context, e.g. in a classroom, and which depends on their students and the constraints imposed on them (time, exams, conformity to prevailing school rules, etc.). In the third and final step, the taught knowledge is transformed into "acquired knowledge" ( savoir acquis ), which is the knowledge as it is actually acquired by students in a learning context. The acquired knowledge can be used as

1050-604: A variety of alternatives for acquiring information. Primary principles comprising the structure of Differentiated Instruction include formative and ongoing assessment, group collaboration, recognition of students' diverse levels of knowledge, problem-solving, and choice in reading and writing experiences. Howard Gardner gained prominence in the education sector for his Multiple Intelligences Theory . He named seven of these intelligences in 1983: Linguistic, Logical and Mathematical, Visual and Spatial, Body and Kinesthetic, Musical and Rhythmic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal. Critics say

1125-416: A variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning . Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or

1200-576: A world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained. Distance education or long-distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school . Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post . Today it involves online education. Courses that are conducted (51 percent or more) are either hybrid , blended or 100% distance learning. Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through

1275-404: Is learning that takes place through dialogue . It is typically the result of egalitarian dialogue ; in other words, the consequence of a dialogue in which different people provide arguments based on validity claims and not on power claims. Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from

1350-404: Is a teacher-centered method of teaching and is content-oriented. Neither the content nor the knowledge of the teacher are questioned. The process of teaching involves the teacher who gives instructions, commands, delivers content, and provides necessary information. The pupil activity involves listening and memorization of the content . In the modern education system, lecture method which is one of

1425-814: Is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers (in the US and UK, earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed.D., Doctor of Education , or a Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy ). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy ). The education of pedagogues, and their role in society, varies greatly from culture to culture. Important pedagogues in Belgium are Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons (Catholic University of Leuven). According to these scholars, schools nowadays are often dismissed as outdated or ineffective. Deschoolers even argue that schools rest on

1500-414: Is called the "didactic triangle". In this triangle, the teacher-content side is concerned with didactic elaboration, the student-content side is about didactic appropriation, and the teacher-student side is about didactic interaction. Didactic method provides students with the required theoretical knowledge. It is an effective method used to teach students who are unable to organize their work and depend on

1575-453: Is concerned with "observing and refining one's skill as a teacher". A more inclusive definition combines these two characterizations and sees pedagogy both as the practice of teaching and the discourse and study of teaching methods. Some theorists give an even wider definition by including considerations such as "the development of health and bodily fitness, social and moral welfare, ethics and aesthetics ". Due to this variety of meanings, it

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1650-475: Is defined by its function, it is then possible to assess its presence among non-human species. Caro and Hauser suggested a functionalist definition. For a behavior to be labeled as teaching, three criteria must be met : Didactics A didactic method ( Greek : διδάσκειν didáskein , "to teach") is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to present information to students. The didactic method of instruction

1725-402: Is defined by the intention of the teacher, which is to transmit information and/or behavior and/or skill. This implies the need for the teacher to assess the knowledge state of the potential learner, thus to demonstrate theory of mind abilities. As theory of mind and intentions are difficult (if not impossible) to assess in non-humans, teaching was considered uniquely human. However, if teaching

1800-459: Is focused on the knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired by students (learning outcomes) through the learning process, rather than on completing a specific stage or on time spent in school." (European Commission, 2012, p.7) This is, according to Masschelein and Simons a plea for learning outcomes and demonstrates a vision of education in which the institution is no longer the point of departure. The main ambition in this discourse of education

1875-405: Is interested in the forms and methods used to convey this understanding. Pedagogy is closely related to didactics but there are some differences. Usually, didactics is seen as the more limited term that refers mainly to the teacher's role and activities, i.e how their behavior is most beneficial to the process of education. This is one central aspect of pedagogy besides other aspects that consider

1950-902: Is often contrasted with dialectics and the Socratic method ; the term can also be used to refer to a specific didactic method, as for instance constructivist didactics . Didactics is a theory of teaching, and in a wider sense, a theory and practical application of teaching and learning . In demarcation from " mathetics " (the science of learning), didactics refers only to the science of teaching. This theory might be contrasted with open learning , also known as experiential learning , in which people can learn by themselves, in an unstructured manner (or in an unusually structured manner) as in experiential education , on topics of interest. It can also be contrasted with autodidactic learning , in which one instructs oneself, often from existing books or curricula. The theory of didactic learning methods focuses on

2025-431: Is often specifically understood in relation to school education. But in a wider sense, it includes all forms of education, both inside and outside schools. In this wide sense, it is concerned with the process of teaching taking place between two parties: teachers and learners. The teacher's goal is to bring about certain experiences in the learner to foster their understanding of the subject matter to be taught. Pedagogy

2100-482: Is political. Decisions regarding the curriculum , disciplinary practices, student testing , textbook selection, the language used by the teacher, and more can empower or disempower students. It asserts that educational practices favor some students over others and some practices harm all students. It also asserts that educational practices often favor some voices and perspectives while marginalizing or ignoring others. The academic degree Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy,

2175-457: Is sometimes suggested that pedagogy is a "catch-all term" associated with various issues of teaching and learning. In this sense, it lacks a precise definition. According to Patricia Murphy, a detailed reflection on the meaning of the term "pedagogy" is important nonetheless since different theorists often use it in very different ways. In some cases, non-trivial assumptions about the nature of learning are even included in its definition. Pedagogy

2250-555: Is the book "Looking after school: a critical analysis of personalisation in Education". It takes a critical look at the main discourse of today's education. Education is seen through a socio-economic lens: education is aimed at mobilising talents and competencies (p23). This is seen in multiple texts from governing bodies, in Belgium and Europe. One of the most significant examples is quoted on page 23:   "Education and training can only contribute to growth and job-creation if learning

2325-404: Is the efficient and effective realisation of learning outcomes for all. Things like the place and time of learning, didactic and pedagogic support are means to an end: the acquisition of preplanned learning outcomes. And these outcomes are a direct input for the knowledge economy. Masschelein and Simons' main critique here is that the main concern is not the educational institution (anymore). Rather,

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2400-455: Is usually distinguished from a teacher 's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social or non-curriculum skills, and cultural norms . There is also a very big focus on the care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion . The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at

2475-573: The Renaissance , the Reformation , and the Age of Enlightenment . Socrates (470 – 399 BCE) employed the Socratic method while engaging with a student or peer. This style does not impart knowledge, but rather tries to strengthen the logic of the student by revealing the conclusions of the statement of the student as erroneous or supported. The instructor in this learning environment recognizes

2550-657: The World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent developments in distance education. A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online learning, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. Adapting the teaching resource should suit appropriate teaching and learning environments , national and local cultural norms, and make it accessible to different types of learners. Key adaptations in teaching resource include: Classroom constraints Cultural familiarity Local relevance Inclusivity for diverse students Dialogic learning

2625-474: The aims of education . The main aim is often identified with the transmission of knowledge . Other aims include fostering skills and character traits . They include helping the student develop their intellectual and social abilities as well as psychomotor and affective learning, which are about developing practical skills and adequate emotional dispositions, respectively. However, not everyone agrees with this characterization of pedagogy and some see it less as

2700-529: The teacher to the student . In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Critical pedagogy applies critical theory to pedagogy and asserts that educational practices are contested and shaped by history, that schools are not politically neutral spaces, and that teaching

2775-474: The "scholarly knowledge" ( savoir savant ) produced by the scholars, scientists or specialists of a certain discipline in a research context, i.e., at universities and other academic institutions is transformed into "knowledge to teach" ( savoir à enseigner ) by precisely selecting, rearranging and defining the knowledge which will be taught (the official curriculum for each discipline) and how it will be taught, so that it becomes an object of learning accessible to

2850-560: The Continental and North European tradition of didactics on the other. Still today, the science of didactics carries much less weight in much of the English-speaking world. . With the advent of globalisation at the beginning of the 20th century, however, the arguments for such relative philosophical aspects in the methods of teaching started to diminish somewhat. It is therefore possible to categorise didactics and pedagogy as

2925-469: The Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916), Schools of To-morrow (1915) with Evelyn Dewey , and Experience and Education (1938). In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good ( My Pedagogic Creed , Dewey, 1897). Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes

3000-520: The Western world, pedagogy is associated with the Greek tradition of philosophical dialogue, particularly the Socratic method of inquiry. A more general account of its development holds that it emerged from the active concept of humanity as distinct from a fatalistic one and that history and human destiny are results of human actions. This idea germinated in ancient Greece and was further developed during

3075-564: The attainment of skilled judgement rather than knowledge of rules. Other relevant practices in the Confucian teaching tradition include the Rite and its notion of body-knowledge as well as Confucian understanding of the self, one that has a broader conceptualization than the Western individual self. A hidden curriculum refers to extra educational activities or side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended" such as

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3150-433: The authors mean with that, is the following: school is a particular time-space-matter arrangement. This thus includes concretes architectures, technologies, practices and figures. This arrangement "deals in a specific way with the new generation, allows for a particular relation to the world, and for a particular experience of potentiality and of commonality (of making things public)". Masschelein and Simons' most famous work

3225-409: The backgrounds and interests of individual students. Its aims may range from furthering liberal education (the general development of human potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills). Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation and environment, as well as learning goals set by

3300-457: The baseline knowledge students possess and seeks to improve upon and convey this information. It also refers to the foundation or starting point in a lesson plan, where the overall goal is knowledge. A teacher or educator functions in this role as an authoritative figure, but also as both a guide and a resource for students. Didactics or the didactic method have different connotations in continental Europe and English-speaking countries. Didacticism

3375-498: The body. He only recommends the Bible as reading material, with limited exposure, and cautions against musical instruments. He advocates against letting girls interact with society, and of having "affections for one of her companions than for others." He does recommend teaching the alphabet by ivory blocks instead of memorization so "She will thus learn by playing." He is an advocate of positive reinforcement , stating "Do not chide her for

3450-457: The descriptive foundation for pedagogy, which is more concerned with educational goal-setting and with the learner's becoming a social subject and their future role in society. In continental Europe, as opposed to English-speaking research cultures, pedagogy and didactics are distinct areas of study. Didactics is a knowledge-based discipline concerned with the descriptive and rational study of all teaching-related activities before, during and after

3525-517: The difficulty she may have in learning. On the contrary, encourage her by commendation..." Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363 – 12 July 1429), the Chancellor of the University of Paris , wrote in De parvulis ad Christum trahendis "Little children are more easily managed by caresses than fear," supporting a more gentle approach than his Christian predecessors. He also states "Above all else, let

3600-440: The false premise that schools are necessary for learning but that people learn faster or better outside the classroom. Others critique the fact that some teachers stand before a classroom with only six weeks of teacher education. Against this background, Masschelein and Simons propose to look at school from a different point of view. Their educational morphology approaches the school as a particular scholastic 'form of gathering'. What

3675-474: The focus lies on the learning processes and mainly on the learning outcomes of the individual learner.   In Brazil, a pedagogue is a multidisciplinary educator. Undergraduate education in Pedagogy qualifies students to become school administrators or coordinators at all educational levels, and also to become multidisciplinary teachers, such as pre-school, elementary and special teachers. In Scandinavia,

3750-416: The interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts. Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning , understandings of students and their needs, and

3825-484: The learner's perspective as well. In this wider sense, pedagogy focuses on "any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another". The word pedagogy is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία ( paidagōgia ), from παιδαγωγός ( paidagōgos ), itself a synthesis of ἄγω ( ágō ), "I lead", and παῖς ( país , genitive παιδός , paidos ) "boy, child": hence, "attendance on boys, to lead

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3900-402: The learner. This external didactic transposition is a socio-political construction made possible by different actors working within various educational institutions: education specialists, political authorities, teachers and their associations define the issues of teaching and choose what should be taught under which form. Chevallard called this socio-political context of institutional organization

3975-666: The learners' need to think for themselves to facilitate their ability to think about problems and issues. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues . Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) describes a system of education in The Republic (375 BCE) in which individual and family rights are sacrificed to the State. He describes three castes: one to learn a trade; one to learn literary and aesthetic ideas; and one to be trained in literary, aesthetic, scientific, and philosophical ideas. Plato saw education as

4050-582: The more vocational Bachelor in Social Education. In Hungary, the word pedagogue ( pedagógus ) is synonymous with the teacher ( tanár ); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013,

4125-418: The most commonly used methods is a form of didactic teaching . Though the didactic method has been given importance in several schools, it does not satisfy the needs and interests of all students. It can be tedious for students to listen to the possible lectures. There is minimum interaction between the students and the teachers. Learning which also involves motivating the students to develop an interest towards

4200-403: The only sources of information that poor children and young people have access to in a poor country like Brazil. These books are also valuable support to teachers, offering modern learning methodologies and updated concepts and content in the most diverse disciplines In didactic method of teaching, the teacher gives instructions to the students and the students are mostly passive listeners . It

4275-567: The practice of teaching. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone (e.g. when showing a colleague how to perform a specific task). In some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family ( homeschooling ), rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching (e.g. youth worker, pastor). Teaching has been considered uniquely human because of mentalistic definitions. Indeed, in psychology, teaching

4350-429: The prepared environment, Montessori educators are called directress rather than teachers. In Brazil, there has been for more than 80 years the government program called PNLD (National Program of Didactic Book). This program seeks to provide basic education schools with didactic and pedagogical records, expanding access to the book and democratizing access to sources of information and culture. Textbooks, in many cases, are

4425-464: The same materials in the same manner and that a standardized, collective measure is very much impartial towards linguistic approaches in instruction and assessment as well as to some extent logical and quantitative styles ." Teaching Teaching is part of the broader concept of education . A teacher , also called a schoolteacher or formally an educator, is a person who helps students to acquire knowledge , competence, or virtue , via

4500-543: The science that takes the teaching of disciplined knowledge as its object of study. In other words, didactics is concerned with the teaching of specific disciplines to students. One of the central concepts studied in didactics of a specific discipline in France is the concept of "didactic transposition" ( La transposition didactique in French). French philosopher and sociologist Michel Verret introduced this concept in 1975, which

4575-512: The six-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice. An article from Kathmandu Post published on 3 June 2018 described the usual first day of school in an academic calendar. Teachers meet their students with distinct traits. The diversity of attributions among children or teens exceeds similarities. Educators have to teach students with different cultural, social, and religious backgrounds. This situation entails

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4650-409: The student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic method . The meaning of the term "pedagogy" is often contested and a great variety of definitions has been suggested. The most common approach is to define it as the study or science of teaching methods . In this sense, it is the methodology of education . As a methodology, it investigates the ways and practices that can be used to realize

4725-438: The teacher and student alike. Confucius (551–479 BCE) stated that authority has the responsibility to provide oral and written instruction to the people under the rule, and "should do them good in every possible way." One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and

4800-523: The teacher make an effort to be a father to his pupils." He is considered a precursor of Fenelon . John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 – 15 November 1670) is considered the father of modern education. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February 17, 1827), founder of several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto

4875-511: The teachers for instructions. It is also used to teach basic skills of reading and writing. The teacher or the literate is the source of knowledge and the knowledge is transmitted to the students through didactic method. Didactic Teaching materials: The Montessori school had preplanned teaching (Didactic) materials designed, to develop practical, sensory, and formal skills. Lacing and buttoning frames, weights, and packet to be identified by their sound or smell. Because they direct learning in

4950-500: The teaching of content in the classroom, which includes the "planning, control and regulation of the teaching context" and its objective is to analyze how teaching leads to learning. On the other hand, pedagogy is a practice-oriented discipline concerned with the normative study of the applied aspects of teaching in real teaching contexts, i.e., inside the classroom. Pedagogy draws from didactic research and can be seen as an applied component of didactics. In France, didactics refers to

5025-515: The teaching process, Herbart suggested five steps as crucial components. Specifically, these five steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application. Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The pedagogy of John Dewey (20 October 1859 – 1 June 1952) is presented in several works, including My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and

5100-414: The theory is based only on Gardner's intuition instead of empirical data. Another criticism is that the intelligence is too identical for types of personalities. The theory of Howard Gardner came from cognitive research and states these intelligences help people to " know the world, understand themselves, and other people ." Said differences dispute an educational system that presumes students can " understand

5175-531: The transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for a learning environment , a place in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to " classroom ", but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use, learning styles , configuration, location, and educational institution. They support

5250-408: The “ noosphere ”, which defines the limits, redefines and reorganizes the knowledge in socially, historically or culturally determined contexts. The second step, called the "internal transposition" ( transposition interne ) is about how the knowledge to teach is transformed into "taught knowledge" ( savoir enseigné ), which is the knowledge actually taught through the day-to-day concrete practices of

5325-457: Was "Learning by head, hand and heart". The educational philosophy and pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) highlighted the correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens. Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical perspectives. Referring to

5400-418: Was a Christian scholar who rejected all pagan education, insisting this was "a road to the false and arrogant wisdom of ancient philosophers". Saint Jerome (347 – 30 September 420 CE), or Saint Hieronymus, was a Christian scholar who detailed his pedagogy of girls in numerous letters throughout his life. He did not believe the body in need of training, and thus advocated for fasting and mortification to subdue

5475-464: Was borrowed and elaborated further in the 1980s by the French didactician of Mathematics Yves Chevallard. Although Chevallard initially presented this concept regarding the didactics of mathematics, it has since been generalized for other disciplines as well. Didactic transposition is composed of multiple steps. The first step, called the "external transposition" ( transposition externe ), is about how

5550-417: Was indeed the cultural origin of the didactic method but refers within its narrow context usually pejoratively to the use of language to a doctrinal end. The interpretation of these opposing views are theorised to be the result of a differential cultural development in the 19th century when Great Britain and its former colonies went through a renewal and increased cultural distancing from continental Europe . It

5625-655: Was particularly the later appearance of Romanticism and Aestheticism in the Anglo-Saxon world which offered these negative and limiting views of the didactic method. On the other hand, in continental Europe those moralising aspects of didactics were removed earlier by cultural representatives of the Age of Enlightenment , such as Voltaire , Rousseau , and later specifically related to teaching by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi . The consequences of these cultural differences then created two main didactic traditions: The Anglo-Saxon tradition of curriculum studies on one side and

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