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65-658: Ficus religiosa or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae , the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree , peepul tree , peepal tree , pipala tree or ashvattha tree (in India and Nepal). The sacred fig is considered to have a religious significance in four major religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent: Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism . Hindu and Jain ascetics consider

130-419: A syconium , derived from an arrangement of many small flowers on an inverted, nearly closed receptacle. The many small flowers are unseen unless the fig is cut open. The fruit typically has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole ) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators . The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps such as Pegoscapus that crawl through the opening in search of

195-404: A constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs. All figs present a white to yellowish latex , some in copious quantities; the twig shows paired stipules —or circular scars if the stipules have fallen off; the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins,

260-407: A continued mutualistic interaction with a certain animal pollinator , and the pollinating animal may also be dependent on that plant species for a food source. Many species have adapted to very limited, unusual, or harsh conditions, such as cold climates or frequent wildfires . Others can live in diverse areas or adapt well to different surroundings. The diversity of species across many parts of

325-488: A distinctive extended drip tip ; they are 10–17 centimetres (3.9–6.7 in) long and 8–12 centimetres (3.1–4.7 in) broad, with a 6–10 centimetres (2.4–3.9 in) petiole . The fruits are small figs 1–1.5 centimetres (0.39–0.59 in) in diameter, green ripening to purple. F. religiosa has a lifespan ranging between 900 and 1,500 years. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in the city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka

390-597: A distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fruit of Ficus is an inflorescence enclosed in an urn-like structure called a syconium , which is lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers that develop into multiple ovaries on the inside surface. In essence, the fig fruit is a fleshy stem with multiple tiny flowers that fruit and coalesce. The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps that enter via ostiole these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been

455-418: A feature referred to as "triveined". Current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus, being at least 60 million years old, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago. Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include, alongside

520-515: A fibrous cloth used for clothing. Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the common fig ( F. carica ) and sycamore fig ( Ficus sycomorus ), were among the first – if not the very first – plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were found in

585-689: A fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside. The genus Dorstenia , also in the fig family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface. Fig plants can be monoecious ( hermaphrodite ) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female). Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within

650-443: A key resource for some frugivores including fruit bats , and primates including: capuchin monkeys , langurs , gibbons and mangabeys . They are even more important for birds such as Asian barbets , pigeons , hornbills , fig-parrots and bulbuls , which may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (crow butterflies),

715-422: A native ecological system disturbed by economic development or other events, they may be historically inaccurate, incomplete, or pay little or no attention to ecotype accuracy or type conversions. They may fail to restore the original ecological system by overlooking the basics of remediation. Attention paid to the historical distribution of native species is a crucial first step to ensure the ecological integrity of

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780-414: A particular place. A native species may occur in areas other than the one under consideration. The terms endemic and native also do not imply that an organism necessarily first originated or evolved where it is currently found. Native species form communities and biological interactions with other specific flora, fauna, fungi, and other organisms. For example, some plant species can only reproduce with

845-518: A risk assessment prepared for the species' invasiveness in Hawaii by PIER. Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones. The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast-growing nature, tolerance to various climate zones and soil types, reported lifespan of over 3,000 years, and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an epiphyte . The earliest known record of Ficus religiosa in human culture

910-606: A saffron cloth wrapped around the base. A yearly ritual involving the Bo Trees at wats is the purchasing of "mai kam sii" ไม้คำ้ศริ, which are "supports" that look like crutches and are placed under the spreading branches as if holding them up. The purchase money helps fund the wat, a central part of Thai life. Ficus religiosa is used in traditional medicine for about fifty types of disorders including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, infectious and sexual disorders. The trunk of this tree

975-448: A suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a coevolutionary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing gynoecia found inside one fig – if you cut open

1040-522: A wide variety of soils but preferably needs deep, alluvial sandy loam with good drainage . It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices. Ficus religiosa is associated with Blastophaga quadriceps , an agaonid wasp which acts as its pollinator as this wasp lays its eggs only on trees of this species. Ficus religiosa is tolerant to various climate zones ( Köppen climate classification categories of Af , Am , Aw/As , Cfa , Cwa and Csa ) and various types of soils. In Paraguay

1105-528: Is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin (سوره تین). In Asia, figs are important in Buddhism and Hinduism . In Jainism , the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited. The Buddha is traditionally held to have found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating for 49 days under a sacred fig . The same species was Ashvattha , the " world tree " of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana

1170-494: Is a gynodioecious plant, as well as lofty fig or clown fig ( F. aspera ), Roxburgh fig ( F. auriculata ), mistletoe fig ( F. deltoidea ), F. pseudopalma , creeping fig ( F. pumila ) and related species. The hermaphrodite common figs are called "inedible figs" or "caprifigs"; in traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats ( Capra aegagrus ). In

1235-729: Is also one of the traditional crops of Israel , and is included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to the Torah ( Deut. 8). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no fruit. The fig tree was sacred in ancient Greece and Cyprus , where it was a symbol of fertility . Video Indigenous (ecology) The notion of nativity is often a blurred concept, as it is a function of both time and political boundaries. Over long periods of time, local conditions and migratory patterns are constantly changing as tectonic plates move, join, and split. Natural climate change (which

1300-425: Is an example of mutualism , in which each organism (fig plant and fig wasp ) benefit each other, in this case reproductively. The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution . Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as

1365-569: Is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described. The species currently classified within Ficus were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters. In 1965, E. J. H. Corner reorganized

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1430-585: Is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old. Ficus religiosa is native to most of the Indian subcontinent – Bangladesh , Bhutan , Nepal , Pakistan and India including the Assam region , Eastern Himalaya and the Nicobar Islands , as well as part of Indochina – the Andaman Islands , Thailand , Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia . It has been widely introduced elsewhere, particularly in

1495-411: Is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae) . Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. A fig "fruit" is a type of multiple fruit known as

1560-643: Is higher because not all wasp species were detected. On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species. Molecular techniques, like microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point. These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for hybrids and effective reproductive isolation and speciation . The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither

1625-518: Is in present-day Bodh Gaya in Bihar, India . The original tree was destroyed, and has been replaced several times. A branch of the original tree was rooted in Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka in 288 BCE and is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi ; it is the oldest living human-planted flowering plant (angiosperm) in the world. In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia , the tree's massive trunk is often

1690-425: Is much slower than human-caused climate change ) changes sea level, ice cover, temperature, and rainfall, driving direct changes in habitability and indirect changes through the presence of predators, competitors, food sources, and even oxygen levels . Species do naturally appear, reproduce, and endure, or become extinct, and their distribution is rarely static or confined to a particular geographic location. Moreover,

1755-514: Is the best. When planting, use soil with a pH of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepul needs proper nourishment . It requires full sunlight and proper watering. Sacred fig occurs naturally in submontane forest regions . As with many Ficus trees, these are well suited for Bonsai training. In the Middle East , it is preferably planted as an avenue or road verge tree. In

1820-584: Is the use of peepal leaf motifs in the pottery of the Helmand culture , found at Mundigak site, in Kandahar , Afghanistan, dating back to third millennium BCE. The Indus Valley Civilisation venerated this tree and its leaf and drew religious art of it. The peepal tree is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism , Jainism , Sikhism and Buddhism . In the Bhagavad Gita , Krishna says, "I am

1885-450: Is used by farmers as a soil leveller. After seed harvesting, the rectangular trunk is connected to tractors and levels the soil. Ficus About 800, see text Ficus ( / ˈ f aɪ k ə s / or / ˈ f iː k ə s / ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees , shrubs , vines , epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae . Collectively known as fig trees or figs , they are native throughout

1950-610: Is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou ( F. religiosa ) leaves' shape inspired one of the standard kbach rachana , decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. Indian banyan ( F. benghalensis ) and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism . The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as urú , was once used by the Moré people  [ es ] of Bolivia to produce

2015-813: The Himalayas . According to Vamana Purana 32.1–4, the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree). Plaksa Pra-sravana denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears. In the Rigveda Sutras, Plaksa Pra-sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati. Ficus religiosa is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as an ornamental tree , in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates . Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot, humid weather. They prefer full sunlight and can grow in all soil types , though loam

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2080-684: The Philippines and in Nicaragua the species is cultivated in parks and along roadsides and pavements , while in Paraguay it occurs in forests at lower elevations . In Thailand โพ or "Pho" trees grow everywhere, but in the Wats (temples) they are revered, and usually are several hundred years old, with trunks up to 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide. As with all sacred trees in Thailand, they have

2145-567: The Society for Ecological Restoration , native plant societies, Wild Ones , and Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center encourage the use of native plants. The identification of local remnant natural areas provides a basis for this work. Many books have been written on the subject of planting native plants in home gardens. The use of cultivars derived from native species is a widely disputed practice among native plant advocates. When ecological restoration projects are undertaken to restore

2210-579: The common fig , whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography : the weeping fig ( F. benjamina ), a hemiepiphyte with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; and the creeping fig ( F. pumila ), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity . In

2275-441: The plain tiger ( Danaus chrysippus ), the giant swallowtail ( Papilio cresphontes ), the brown awl ( Badamia exclamationis ), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma , Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths . The citrus long-horned beetle ( Anoplophora chinensis ), for example, has larvae that feed on wood , including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the sweet potato whitefly ( Bemisia tabaci )

2340-580: The tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The common fig ( F. carica ) is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region (from Afghanistan to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit , also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood . However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout

2405-526: The Cancer constellation). Plaksa is a possible Sanskrit term for Ficus religiosa . However, according to Macdonell and Keith (1912), it denotes the wavy-leaved fig tree ( Ficus infectoria ) instead. In Hindu texts, the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the Sarasvati River . The Skanda Purana states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma flows from Plaksa on

2470-701: The Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the Deva Rishi (Divine sages), Bhrigu among the Saptha-Maharishis, Chitraratha among the Gandharvas , And sage Kapila among the Siddhas." In India, the medal for the highest civilian award, Bharat Ratna , is modelled on the leaf of a Peepal tree. Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment ( bodhi ) while meditating underneath a Ficus religiosa . The site

2535-481: The breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts. Some parthenocarpic cultivars of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile ) in the absence of caprifigs and fig wasps. Depending on the species, each fruit can contain hundreds or even thousand of seeds. Figs can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to

2600-439: The correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years. Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades. According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion

2665-491: The distinction between native and non-native as being tied to a local occurrence during historical times has been criticised as lacking perspective, and a case was made for more graded categorisations such as that of prehistoric natives , which occurred in a region during prehistory but have since suffered local extinction there due to human involvement. A native species in a location is not necessarily also endemic to that location. Endemic species are exclusively found in

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2730-547: The early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley , 13 km, or 8.1 mi, north of Jericho ). These were a parthenogenetic type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years. Numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including: Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among

2795-411: The family Agaonidae for pollination. Adult plants vary in size from Ficus benghalensis which may cover a hectare (2.5 acres) or more of ground to Ficus nana of New Guinea which never exceeds one meter (forty inches) in height and width. Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus Ficus are relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and

2860-420: The female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "'edible figs". Fig wasps grow in common fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. In many situations, the wasp pollinator is unable to escape and dies within

2925-457: The fruit. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes ( Ficain ) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans. When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Caprifigs have three crops per year; common figs have two. The first crop ( breba ) is larger and juicier, and usually eaten fresh. In cold climates

2990-421: The genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus Ficus . Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera Urostigma , Pharmacosycea and Sycomorus . This traditional classification has been called into question by recent phylogenetic studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of

3055-513: The more famous species are the sacred fig tree (Pipal, bodhi, bo, or po, Ficus religiosa ) and other banyan figs such as Ficus benghalensis . The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. The common fig is one of two significant trees in Islam , and there

3120-400: The number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically. While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation. With over 800 species, Ficus

3185-464: The other section of Pharmacosycea , the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species. These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages is not as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of Urostigma except for section Urostigma s. s. . The other includes section Urostigma s. s. , subgenus Sycomorus , and

3250-584: The ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying. All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like Indian banyan ( F. benghalensis ), weeping fig ( F. benjamina ), Indian rubber plant ( F. elastica ), fiddle-leaved fig ( F. lyrata ), Moreton Bay fig ( F. macrophylla ), Chinese banyan ( F. microcarpa ), sacred fig ( F. religiosa ) and sycamore fig ( F. sycomorus ). The common fig ( Ficus carica )

3315-474: The parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes. Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii , some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them, so only those species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species . This

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3380-717: The project. For example, to prevent erosion of the recontoured sand dunes at the western edge of the Los Angeles International Airport in 1975, landscapers stabilized the backdunes with a "natural" seed mix (Mattoni 1989a). Unfortunately, the seed mix was representative of coastal sage scrub , an exogenous plant community, instead of the native dune scrub community. As a result, the El Segundo blue butterfly (Euphilotes battoides allyni) became an endangered species. The El Segundo blue butterfly population, which had once extended over 3200 acres along

3445-951: The region receives more than 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) of precipitation per month, Tropical monsoon climate where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) in the driest month to 100 millimetres (10 cm), Tropical savanna climate with dry summer where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in summers to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in winters , Tropical savanna climate with dry winter where average precipitation ranges from to 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in winters to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in summers , Warm temperate climate with dry winter where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and winters are dry, as well as Warm temperate climate with dry summer where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and summers are dry. Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs, which ring

3510-544: The rest of tropical Asia, but also in Iran (Balochistan), Florida and Venezuela . Ficus religiosa suitably grows at altitudes ranging from 10 metres (33 ft) up to 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). Due to the climatic conditions which are prevalent throughout different heat zones, it can grow at latitudes ranging from 30°N to 5°S. It can tolerate air temperatures ranging between 0 to 35 °C (32 to 95 °F), beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes. It grows on

3575-442: The sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting " vriksha rajaya namah ", meaning "salutation to the king of trees". It is claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses ( rasis ) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in

3640-458: The site of Buddhist or animist shrines. Not all Ficus religiosa are ordinarily called a Bodhi Tree . A true Bodhi Tree is traditionally considered a tree that has as its parent another Bodhi Tree, and so on, until the first Bodhi Tree, which is the tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment. Sadhus ( Hindu ascetics) meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around

3705-858: The species of subgenus Ficus , though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved. As of April 2024, there are 880 accepted Ficus species according to Plants of the World Online . The following species are typically spreading or climbing lianas : The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt . Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia , F. insipida and F. padifolia ) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate ( Nahuatl : āmatl ). Mutuba ( F. natalensis )

3770-452: The species to be sacred and often meditate under it. Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment under a tree of this species. The sacred fig is the state tree of the Indian states of Odisha , Bihar and Haryana . Ficus religiosa is a large dry season - deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft). The leaves are cordate in shape with

3835-479: The stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside, the epiphytic bushes of F. religiosa are not true stranglers. Their roots penetrate inside the stem of the support, eventually splitting it from within. Ficus religiosa has been listed as an " environmental weed " or "naturalised weed" by the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in

3900-482: The tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations, and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from 400 to 700 metres (1,300 to 2,300 ft). In India, being a native species , it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). Ficus religiosa is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as Tropical rainforest climate where

3965-502: The tropics, Ficus commonly is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia, as many as 70 or more species can co-exist. Ficus species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres. A description of fig tree cultivation is set out in Ibn al-'Awwam 's 12th-century agricultural work titled, Book on Agriculture . Figs are keystone species in many tropical forest ecosystems . Their fruit are

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4030-443: The tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses. Ficus is a pantropical genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches ; most are evergreen , but some deciduous species are found in areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations. Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome , which uses wasp species belonging to

4095-407: The various sections of each subgenus. Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only Sycomorus is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies. Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages. One of the two sections of Pharmacosycea , a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes

4160-1040: The world exists only because bioregions are separated by barriers, particularly large rivers , seas , oceans , mountains , and deserts . Humans can introduce species that have never met in their evolutionary history, on varying time scales ranging from days to decades (Long, 1981; Vermeij, 1991). Humans are moving species across the globe at an unprecedented rate. Those working to address invasive species view this as an increased risk to native species. As humans introduce species to new locations for cultivation, or transport them by accident, some of them may become invasive species, damaging native communities. Invasive species can have profound effects on ecosystems by changing ecosystem structure, function, species abundance , and community composition. Besides ecological damage, these species can also damage agriculture, infrastructure, and cultural assets. Government agencies and environmental groups are directing increasing resources to addressing these species. Native plant organizations such as

4225-622: Was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is Ficus virens . According to the Kikuyu people , sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a sycomore tree (Mũkũyũ) and if one was not available, a fig tree (Mũgumo) would be used. The common fig tree is cited in the Bible , where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit

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