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61-482: Most past perfumers did not undergo professional training in the art, and many learned their craft as apprentices under another perfumer in their employment as technicians (in charge of blending formulas) or chemists. These people were usually given temporary jobs in the industry. A direct entrance into the profession is rare, and those who do typically enter it through family contacts. Such apprenticeships last around three years. Until recently, professional schools open to

122-428: A " Nez " (French for nose ) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition. The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell

183-464: A BA (Bachelor of Arts) course in Business & Perfumery. Most perfumers are employed by large fragrance corporations including Mane , Robertet , Firmenich , IFF , Givaudan , Takasago , and Symrise . Some work exclusively for a perfume house or in their own companies, but these are not as common. The perfumer typically begins a project with a brief by their employer or a customer, typically

244-670: A family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled using extracts from citrus, floral, and woody ingredients. These "classical colognes" were supposedly first developed in Cologne, Germany , hence the name. This type of cologne, which is still in production, describes unisex compositions "which are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent." Examples include Mäurer & Wirtz's 4711 (created in 1799), and Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale (1830). "Toilet water," or eau de toilette, referred to wide range of scented waters not otherwise known as colognes, and were popular throughout

305-413: A fashion house or other large corporation . This will contain the specifications for the desired perfume, and will describe in often poetic or abstract terms what it should smell like or what feelings it should evoke, along with a maximum price per litre of the perfume oil concentrate. This allowance, along with the intended application of the perfume, will determine what aromatic ingredients will be used in

366-403: A guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts. The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect

427-429: A mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a fragrance is based on the concentration, intensity, and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by

488-411: A more concentrated product, typically a pure parfum, and is usually the lightest concentration from a line of fragrance products. The eau de parfum concentration and terminology is the most recent, being originally developed to offer the radiance of an EdT with the longevity of an extrait. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s. In the 21st century, EdP

549-484: A perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and antioxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively. Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups: The top, middle, and base notes of

610-456: A pleasant and fragrant odor. They consist of manmade mixtures of aromatic chemicals and essential oils. The 1939 Nobel Laureate for Chemistry, Leopold Ružička stated in 1945 that "right from the earliest days of scientific chemistry up to the present time, perfumes have substantially contributed to the development of organic chemistry as regards methods, systematic classification, and theory." Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show

671-425: A single aromatic material. The family classification is a starting point to describe a perfume, but does not fully characterize it. The traditional categories which emerged around 1900: Since 1945, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents, due to great advances in the technology of compound design and synthesis, as well as the natural development of styles and tastes: This newer classification method

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732-509: A solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume-oil dilution is alcohol, typically a mixture of ethanol and water or a rectified spirit . Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil , or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil and almond oil . The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures

793-424: A source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores , infections, as well as to attract pollinators . Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance

854-616: A strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry . There is a controversy on whether perfumery was completely lost in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . That said, the art of perfumery in Western Europe

915-620: A wheel. In this scheme, Chanel No.5 , traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, is placed under the Soft Floral sub-group, while amber scents are within the Oriental group. Chypre perfumes are more ambiguous, having affinities with both the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko is under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge , a more floral chypre, is under Floral Oriental. Plants have long been used in perfumery as

976-440: A wider range of customers. As this process accelerated, perfume houses borrowed the term "cologne" to refer to an even more diluted interpretation of their fragrances than eau de toilette. Guerlain , for example, offered an eau de cologne version of its flagship perfume Shalimar and many of its other fragrances. In contrast to a classical eau de cologne, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, less concentrated interpretation of

1037-466: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Perfume Perfume ( UK : / ˈ p ɜː f j uː m / , US : / p ər ˈ f j uː m / ) is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), fixatives and solvents , usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent . Perfumes can be defined as substances that emit and diffuse

1098-558: Is affiliated with the Osmothèque , a perfume archive that researches ancient perfumes, and reconstructs fragrances whose formulas have been lost. The facilities are a mix of renovated ancient buildings, protected by Historic Landmark status, and contemporary architecture by parisian architects Philippe Ameller and Jacques Dubois (2004). 48°49′00″N 2°08′32″E  /  48.816569°N 2.142267°E  / 48.816569; 2.142267 This French school-related article

1159-476: Is applied to those sold to men. The actual product worn by a woman may be an eau de parfum rather than an extrait, or by a man an eau de toilette rather than an eau de cologne. The reasons why the terms "perfume" and "cologne" are often used in a generic sense is related to the modern development of perfumery in Europe since the 18th century. The term "cologne" was first used in Europe in the 18th century to refer to

1220-405: Is behind the ears, at the nape of the neck, under the armpits and at the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise. The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it

1281-410: Is probably the most widespread strength concentration. It is often the first concentration offered when a new fragrance is launched, and usually referred to generically as "perfume." Historically, women's fragrances tended to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men were typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. This is changing in

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1342-490: Is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening. Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours. A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with

1403-442: Is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer . They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as

1464-440: Is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes . Orchid scents (typically salicylates ) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match

1525-468: Is widely used in retail and the fragrance industry, created in 1983 by the perfume consultant Michael Edwards . The new scheme simplifies classification and naming, as well as showing the relationships among the classes. The five main families are Floral , Oriental , Woody , Aromatic Fougère , and Fresh , the first four from the classic terminology and the last from the modern oceanic category. Each of these are divided into subgroups and arranged around

1586-463: The alembic (which still bears its Arabic name. [from Greek ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"] described by Synesius in the 4th century ). The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna ) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation , the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose . Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made

1647-410: The 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne ; his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over

1708-569: The 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de' Medici (1519–1589), René the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and cosmetics manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in

1769-440: The 19th century. The term "perfume" emerged in the late 19th century. The first fragrance labeled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. In the first half of the 20th century, fragrance companies began offering their products in more than one concentration, often pairing an extrait with a lighter eau de toilette suitable for day wear, which made their products available to

1830-507: The EdT from the 1950s, and the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In some cases, words such as extrême , intense , or concentrée that might indicate a higher aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord . An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur concentrée . This complexity adds a layer of nuance to

1891-672: The United States, UK, Dubai, Hong Kong, Germany, New Zealand, and Thailand. More recently, in 2002, another school was born, the Grasse Institute of Perfumery (G.I.P). Similarly here, candidates must have a foundation in chemistry or pharmacy to be accepted as students. Grasse itself is a world-renowned perfume centre. Givaudan , International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF) and Symrise operate their own perfumery schools, but students must be employees and recommended by their managers. The University of Plymouth (UK) offers

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1952-435: The aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain , neroli , and orange oils . Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone , a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that

2013-572: The aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless. Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term " essential oils ", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes , essential oils , and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes. Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are

2074-702: The art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia , Egypt , the Indus Valley civilization and possibly Ancient China . It was further refined by the Romans and the Muslims. One of the world's first-recorded chemists is considered to be a woman named Tapputi , a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics , then filtered and put them back in

2135-520: The business in 1732. By the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily , and Calabria (in Italy) were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design and trade . Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or

2196-455: The case. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the actual amount will vary among companies. An EdT from one house may have a higher concentration of aromatic compounds than an EdP from another. Furthermore, some fragrances with

2257-407: The composition. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple mixtures and will attempt to capture the desired feelings specified in the brief. After presenting the perfume mixtures to the customers, the perfumer may "win" the brief with their approval. They proceed to work with the customer, often with the direction provided by a panel or artistic director, which guides and edits

2318-448: The formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume. The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance ( shampoos , make-up , detergents , car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance . Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how

2379-412: The fragrance components presented as a fragrance pyramid , using imaginative and abstract terms for the components listed. The grouping of perfumes can never be completely objective or definitive. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower" will have subtle undertones of other aromatics. There are hardly any true unitary-scent perfumes consisting of

2440-532: The fragrant compounds found in various orchids. One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white musks . These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent. The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies . They include: Each of these companies patents several processes for

2501-592: The home. As a result, Andalusian women used perfumes for courtship. Recipes of perfumes from the monks of Santa Maria Delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence , Italy, were recorded from 1221. In the east, the Hungarians produced around 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary . The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in

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2562-478: The immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes; conversely, the scents of the base notes will be altered by the types of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers who publish perfume notes typically do so with

2623-609: The industry. It was founded in 1970 by Jean-Jacques Guerlain as ISIP (Institut supérieur international du parfum). It became Groupe ISIPCA in 1984 when the CCIV (Chambre de commerce et d'industrie de Versailles-Val-d'Oise-Yvelines) backed up and sponsored the school with significant capital. From 2004 to 2017, ISIPCA and UVSQ ( University of Versailles ) had established a partnership in order to offer postgraduate programmes ( Bachelor's degree Diplomas and Professional Masters ) in perfumery, cosmetics and food flavoring. The school

2684-574: The interior to remain fragrant for 500 years. In the 9th century the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) wrote the Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations , which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils , salves , aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as

2745-403: The modern fragrance world, especially as fragrances are becoming more unisex. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but in the 21st century are mainly seen in EdP and EdT concentrations. Many modern perfumes are never offered in extrait or eau de cologne formulations, and EdP and EdT account for the vast majority of new launches. Perfume oils are often diluted with

2806-414: The modifications on the composition of the perfume. This process typically spans several months to several years, going through many iterations, and may involve cultural and public surveys to tailor a perfume to a particular market. The composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance ( shampoos , make-up , detergents , car interiors, etc.) or marketed directly to

2867-499: The names of the perfumers who composed them, and who were considered by his house as their authors. In the following decade, perfumers became an integral part of fragrance messaging and were increasingly placed in the spotlight. ISIPCA ISIPCA ( Institut supérieur international du parfum, de la cosmétique et de l'aromatique alimentaire ) is a French school for post-graduate studies in perfume , cosmetics products and food flavor formulation, with an apprenticeship period in

2928-462: The overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent. The trail of scent left behind by a person wearing perfume is called its sillage , after the French word for " wake ", as in the trail left by a boat in water. Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes , making the harmonious scent accord . The notes unfold over time, with

2989-403: The percent of perfume oil in the volume of the final product. The most widespread terms are: The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in each concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is quite imprecise with regard to oil concentration. Although an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and in turn an EdC, this is not always

3050-413: The production of aromatic synthetics annually. Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from

3111-488: The public did not exist. In 1970 ISIPCA became the first school in perfumery. Candidates must pass a demanding entrance examination, and must have taken university -level courses in organic chemistry . Since 1998 PerfumersWorld's school has offered formal and informal training through university courses at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi Biotechnology faculty, at Chulalongkorn University Pharmacy faculty and through online courses and private workshops in

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3172-411: The public as a fine fragrance . Alternatively, the perfumer may simply be inspired to create a perfume and produce something that later becomes marketable or wins a brief. This is more common in smaller or independent perfume houses. For a long time, perfumes were associated with the brand name on the bottle. In 2,000, Frédéric Malle was the first to include on the bottles of the perfumes he launched

3233-423: The raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils , absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature

3294-504: The same product name but having a different concentration may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a good example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations are in fact different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921,

3355-459: The same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil". Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries

3416-826: The still several times. On the Indian subcontinent , perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC). In 2003, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos , Cyprus . The perfumes dated back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 300-square-meter (3,230 sq ft) factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices , such as almond , coriander , myrtle , conifer resin , and bergamot , as well as flowers . In May 2018, an ancient perfume "Rodo" (Rose)

3477-454: The understanding and appreciation of perfumery, where variations in concentration and formulation can significantly alter the olfactory ("the sense of smell") experience. The terms "perfume" and "cologne" lead to much confusion in English. "Perfume" is often used as a generic, overarching term to refer to fragrances marketed to women, regardless of their exact concentration. The term "cologne"

3538-463: The use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin , which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics. The word perfume is derived from the Latin perfumare , meaning "to smoke through". Perfumery, as

3599-577: The wearer's own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance. The use of medications can also impact the character of a fragrance. The relative dryness of the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil. The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret . Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing

3660-544: Was recreated for the Greek National Archaeological Museum's anniversary show "Countless Aspects of Beauty", allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their olfaction receptors. Romans and Greek extracted perfumes from diverse sources such as flowers, woods, seeds, roots, saps, gums. A temple to Athena in Elis, near Olympia, was said to have saffron blended into its wall plaster, allowing

3721-701: Was reinvigorated after the Islamic invasion of Spain and Southern Italy in 711 and 827. The Islamic controlled cities of Spain ( Al-Andalus ) became major producers of perfumes that were traded throughout the Old World . Like in the ancient world, Andalusians used fragrance in devotion to God. Perfumes added a layer of cleanliness that was needed for their devotion. Andalusian women were also offered greater freedoms than women in other Muslim controlled regions and were allowed to leave their homes and socialize outside. This freedom allowed courtship to occur outside of

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