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57-747: The Cossack Brigade was formed by Nasir al-Din Shah in 1879, using as a model the Caucasian Cossack regiments of the Imperial Russian Army which had impressed him when travelling through southern Russia in 1878. Together with a Swedish-trained and officered gendarmerie , the Cossack Brigade came to comprise the most effective military force available to the Iranian crown in the years prior to World War I. In spite of its name

114-698: A Royal Navy Fleet Review ), and finally in 1889 and was reportedly amazed with the technology he saw. During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1873, Naser al-Din Shah was appointed by Queen Victoria a Knight of the Order of the Garter , the highest English order of chivalry. He was the first Persian monarch to be honoured as such. His travel diary of his 1873 trip has been published in several languages, including Persian, German, French, and Dutch. In 1890 Naser al-Din met British major Gerald F. Talbot and signed

171-467: A contract with him giving him the ownership of the Persian tobacco industry, but he later was forced to cancel the contract after Ayatollah Mirza Hassan Shirazi issued a fatwa that made farming, trading, and consuming tobacco haram (forbidden). Consuming tobacco from the newly monopolized 'Talbet' company represented foreign exploitation, so for that reason it was deemed immoral. It even affected

228-409: A 50-year concession on the purchase, sale, and processing of all tobacco in the country, which led to a national boycott of tobacco and the withdrawal of the concession. This last incident is considered by many authorities to be the origin of modern Iranian nationalism . Naser al-Din was assassinated by Mirza Reza Kermani , a follower of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī , when he was visiting and praying in

285-405: A junior officer. By this time the brigade was rapidly disintegrating and the Shah was under pressure to disband it and give control over army training to German military advisors. It was further cut to just 150 men with one Russian officer. At this point it seemed that the brigade would end as a failed experiment and become nothing more than a footnote in Persian history. The Persian Cossack Brigade

342-402: A large portion of its funds, encouraged by the Shah's son who was Minister of War. Under pressure from Russia the Cossack Brigade was reunified under Kosagoskij's command and the muhajirs were treated like other regular soldiers. The result was a great improvement in efficiency, resulting in a well-organized, well-trained, and obedient force. The first major event involving the brigade arose from

399-399: A professional fighting force. The initial strength of the brigade was 400 men drawn from immigrants known as Caucasian muhajirs , who were descendants of Circassians and Transcaucasian Muslims who had migrated to Iran to avoid Russian rule. They possessed special privileges as a hereditary military caste. Domantovich made rapid progress with their training and the Shah ordered the strength of

456-521: The Lazarevskiĭ Institute , a secondary school for Armenians founded in Moscow by an Armenian merchant. By 1903 the brigade was reported to have grown to 1,500 men, with 200 Russian officers. This proportion of officers to other ranks was far higher than the one to thirty ratio that was usual in armies of that period and was regarded with concern by contemporary British commentators, who noted that

513-517: The Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine on 1 May 1896. It is said that the revolver used to assassinate him was old and rusty, and had he worn a thicker overcoat, or been shot from a longer range, he would have survived the attempt on his life. Shortly before his death, he is reported to have said "I will rule you differently if I survive!" The assassin was prosecuted by the defence minister, Nazm ol-Dowleh. Nasser-al-Din Shah's assassination and

570-737: The Swedish-trained gendarmerie , the only truly professional military forces in Iran. With his expanded forces and the Cossack Brigade, Reza Khan launched military actions to eliminate separatist and dissident movements in Tabriz, Mashhad, and the Jangalis in Gilan, Simko and the Kurds. The brigade, with a strength of 7,000–8,000 men at the time, was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces to form

627-561: The Cossack Brigade played a role in was the 1906 Constitutional Revolution , as a result of intense political pressure and rebellion. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah gave in to the rebels, and died shortly after signing the Constitution. It was the Persian Cossack Brigade that helped keeping his son Muhammad Ali Shah on the throne. As a consequence however, he was considered to be a Russian puppet. He later attempted to overthrow

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684-483: The Cossack Brigade, it forced the Shah to abdicate. Here the brigade failed in ensuring the power of the Shah. Nonetheless, the brigade retained a great deal of importance as a tool for both the Russians and the Shah. Furthermore, Russian influence greatly expanded during this time period with Russian forces occupying several parts of Iran (mostly the north), and the country became divided into spheres of influence between

741-749: The Russian army, such as Vladimir Liakhov . Such secondments were encouraged by the Imperial Russian Government who saw the Cossack Brigade as a means of extending Russian influence in a key area of international rivalry. After the October Revolution in 1917 , many of these Russian officers left the country to join the "White" forces. The command of the Persian Cossack Division was subsequently transferred to Iranian officers. Most notable among these officers

798-653: The Russians and the British as agreed in the Anglo-Russian Agreement signed in August 1907. World War I spilled over into Persian territory as Ottoman, Russian, and British forces entered Persia. The Russian Command in 1916 expanded the Cossack Brigade to full divisional strength of roughly 8,000 men. The brigade engaged in combat against Ottoman troops and helped to secure Russian interests in northern Persia. The British-created South Persia Rifles performed

855-467: The Shah's personal life as his wives did not allow him to smoke. This was not the end of Naser al-Din's attempts to give concessions to Europeans; he later gave the ownership of Persian customs incomes to Paul Julius Reuter . He defeated various rebels in the Iranian provinces, most notably in Khorasan , balanced the budget by introducing reforms to the tax system, curbed the power of the clergy in

912-432: The arsenal of the brigade in 1883 but made no other improvements. In 1886 Colonel Karavaev became commander. During his time, the brigade was faced with budget cuts and thus had its numbers diminished. In 1890 Colonel Shneur took over and was unable to pay the men. After many desertions, combined with a cholera epidemic, the strength was reduced to 450 men, and eventually cut down to 200. Shneur left in 1893, leaving command to

969-495: The assassination of their founder, Nasir-ed-Din Shah on May 1, 1896. Chaos broke loose as different factions sought to take power, and mobs rampaged in the streets. The police were unable to control them and the regular army could not be relied upon to do so. Kosagovskij was given free rein by the Prime Minister Amin os-Soltan to "Act in accordance with your own understanding and wisdom." Kosagovskij quickly mobilized

1026-574: The brigade and had them occupy the whole of Tehran to keep order in the city. The brigade also became involved in intrigues between different factions of the Persian government. Nayeb os-Saltenah, the local commander of the forces in Tehran was likely to seize power from the legitimate heir, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah , who was in Tabriz . Kosagovski, backed by the brigade, the Russians and British, warned Saltenah that only Mozaffar ad-Din Shah would be recognized as

1083-605: The brigade was effectively under the direct control of the Imperial Russian Legation in Tehran. The brigade itself now included cavalry, infantry and artillery elements. It was independent of the regular Persian Army and under the command of a colonel of the Russian General Staff with the local rank of Field Marshal . The Persian rank and file were paid regularly on a monthly basis, at a cost amounting to 40,000 roubles. The second major event

1140-472: The brigade was not a typical Cossack force as employed in the neighbouring Russian Empire. The Cossack regiments of the Imperial Russian Army were based on a feudal-style system under which military service was given in return for long-term grants of land. By contrast the Persian Cossack Brigade was recruited on a conventional basis, from a mix of volunteers and conscripts. Neither did it have

1197-425: The brigade was numerically enlarging and drastically growing in military strength, eventually civilian volunteers were also accepted into its ranks, including members of ethnic and religious minorities. For example, from the mid-1890s until 1903, the highest-ranking Persian officer in the brigade was the chief of staff, Martiros Khan Davidkhanian , an Armenian from New Julfa , near Isfahan , who had been educated at

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1254-503: The corpse was conveyed on a very high funeral car and was 'high' in more ways than one". His one-piece marble tombstone, bearing his full effigy, is now kept in the Golestan Palace Museum in Tehran. Naser al-Din Shah was very interested in painting and photography . He was a talented painter and, even though he had not been trained, was an expert in pen and ink drawing. Several of his pen and ink drawings survive. He

1311-585: The country, removing the Shah and crowning himself as new Shah, thus establishing the Pahlavi dynasty . He was then called Reza Shah. Major Minor Nasir al-Din Shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar ( Persian : ناصرالدین‌شاه قاجار , romanized :  Nāser-ad-Din Ŝāh-e Qājār ; 17 July 1831 – 1 May 1896) was the fourth Shah of Qajar Iran from 5 September 1848 to 1 May 1896 when he

1368-440: The establishment of newspapers in the country and made use of modern forms of technology such as telegraph, photography and also planned concessions for railways and irrigation works. Despite his modernizing reforms on education, his tax reforms were abused by people in power, and the government was viewed as corrupt and unable to protect commoners from abuse by the upper class which led to increasing anti-governmental sentiments. He

1425-584: The famous Persian reformer. With him, many believe, died the prospect of an independent Persia led by meritocracy rather than nepotism. In the later years of his rule, however, Naser al-Din steadfastly refused to deal with the growing pressures for reforms. He also granted a series of concessionary rights to foreigners in return for large payments. In 1872, popular pressure forced him to withdraw one concession involving permission to construct such complexes as railways and irrigation works throughout Persia. He visited Europe in 1873, 1878 and 1889. In 1890, he granted

1482-602: The government established by the Constitution using the Persian Cossack Brigade in January 1907. It surrounded the Majles (parliament) and shelled the building with heavy artillery . He was briefly successful and with the help of Colonel Liakhov, the brigade commander, he governed Tehran for a year acting as a military dictator . Liakhov was appointed military governor of Tehran. In the ensuing civil strife forces from Azerbaijan led by Sattar Khan and Yeprem Khan retook Tehran from

1539-710: The judiciary, built several military factories, improved relations with other powers to curb British and Russian influence, opened the first newspaper called Vaghaye-Ettefaghieh , embellished and modernized cities (for example by building the Tehran Bazaar ) and most importantly opened the first Iranian school for upper education called the Dar ul-Funun where many Iranian intellectuals received their education. The Shah gradually lost interest in reform. However, he took some important measures such as introducing telegraphy and postal services and building roads. He also increased

1596-487: The legitimate heir. On June 7, 1896, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah entered Tehran escorted by the Cossacks. The brigade on this date established themselves as kingmakers and in the future would serve as important tools for both the Russians and the Shah in maintaining control of Persia. Russian influence inside Persia expanded tremendously as the brigade was able to exert massive control in internal Persian politics and intrigues. As

1653-439: The monarchy, since it did not have the power to enforce them. The people followed the ulama's fatwas instead of state-issued law. When Naser al-Din took power, his army barely had 3,000 men which was significantly smaller than the armies under various tribal leaders. When the state needed a proper army, he would hire the local militias. Prior to his reforms, Naser's government had very little power over their subjects and even during

1710-481: The new Iranian Army of 40,000 which would be led by Iranian officers, many of them friends and cronies of Reza Khan from his days as an officer in the Cossack Brigade. These officers from the Cossack brigade received appointments and patronage in key positions in the new government and military. Using the Cossack Brigade as a springboard, Reza Khan found himself able to place himself in a position of power, centralizing

1767-476: The new Shah. Seeking his assent, Reza visited Setkhanian at the Davidkhanian mansion on Sepah Street . While circumnavigating the pond, Setkhanian pledged his loyalty, and subsequently sat for a portrait in full regalia for the new regime. Reza Khan's later modernization and enlargement of the army would use the Cossack Brigade as its core. Prior to World War I the Cossack Brigade constituted, together with

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1824-467: The new brigade to be increased to 600 men drawn from the regular army. The rapid progress of the Cossack Brigade caused concern in Russia due to fear that it might become a true fighting force rather than a tool of the Russian government. Domantovich was dismissed as commander in 1881 and replaced by the less effective Colonel Charkovsij, over the protests of the Shah. Charkovsij added four artillery pieces to

1881-676: The ranks of the brigade following the British purge though he had learned much from the previous Russian officers. On 14 January 1921, the British General Ironside chose to promote Reza Khan, who had been leading the Tabriz battalion, to lead the entire brigade. After General Ironside promoted Reza Khan, members of the brigade approached Alexander Khan Setkhanian , the Chief of Staff of the brigade, to consider opposing Reza's rise. As Setkhanian had been fond of Reza when Reza had served under his command, Setkhanian chose not to oppose

1938-519: The reforms, they faced more scrutiny over their ability to implement those reforms successfully. Naser al-Din was in Tabriz when he heard of his father's death in 1848, and he ascended to the Sun Throne with the help of Amir Kabir . During his reign he would have to deal with the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar , as well as insurrections by Babis . Naser al-Din had early reformist tendencies, but

1995-415: The royal cavalry had been defeated; and had even had much difficulty fighting against Turcoman nomads. Tsar Alexander II approved Russian military advisors traveling to Persia to fulfill the Shah's request for assistance. The brigade was then formed in 1879 by Lieutenant-Colonel Aleksey Domantovich , a Russian officer. Russian interests and lack of funding slowed the initial development of the brigade into

2052-468: The same function in southern Iran for the British. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the British took over the Cossack Brigade and removed Russian officers, replacing them with British and Iranian ones. This was an important transition point in the history of the brigade as it now came under complete British and Iranian control and was effectively purged of Russian influence. Following

2109-504: The size of the state's military and created a new group called the Persian Cossack Brigade which was trained and armed by the Russians. He was the first Persian to be photographed and was a patron of photography who had himself photographed hundreds of times. His final prime minister was Ali Asghar Khan , who after the shah's assassination aided in securing the transfer of the throne to Mozaffar al-Din . Although he

2166-421: The status of a guards unit . However, it closely resembled a true Cossack-style cavalry unit. Late 19th century photographs (see example below) show Russian style uniforms, in contrast to the indigenous dress of other Persian forces at the time. The rank and file of the brigade were always Caucasian Muhajir and later Persian as well, but until 1920 its commanders were Russian officers who were also employed in

2223-689: The subsequent execution of Kermani marked a turning point in Iranian political thought that would ultimately lead to the Iranian Constitutional Revolution during his successor Mozzafar-al-Din Shah 's turbulent reign. Naser al-Din was buried in the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine, in Rayy near Tehran , where he was assassinated. His funeral took place six months after his death. A British diplomat who spoke with some who had been present, Charles Hardinge , commented "...

2280-476: The takeover. About a month later, under British direction, Reza Khan led his 3,000–4,000 strong detachment of the Cossack Brigade based in Qazvin and Hamadan to Tehran in 1921 and seized the capital. With this coup Reza Khan established himself as the most powerful person in Iran. Although the coup was largely bloodless and faced little resistance, Setkhanian remained one of the last generals to pledge his loyalty to

2337-505: The territory in the Caucasus irrevocably lost to Russia in the early 19th century, Naser al-Din sought compensation by seizing Herat , in 1856. Great Britain regarded the move as a threat to British India and declared war on Persia , forcing the return of Herat as well as Persia's recognition of the kingdom of Afghanistan. Naser al-Din was the first modern Persian monarch to visit Europe in 1873 and then again in 1878 (when he saw

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2394-597: The throne and its secure transfer to his son, Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar . In November 1896, Ali Asghar was dismissed from his prime minister office by Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar. Ali Asghar then initially retired to Qom , later traveled through Russia to China and Japan , and then emigrated to Switzerland . During the Iranian Constitutional Revolution , the new Qajar king Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar invited Ali Asghar back to Iran. Although Ali Asghar had many who opposed him, he also had supporters in major Iranian cities such as Qazvin , Rasht , and his native Tehran. He

2451-428: The ulama enabled them to remain structurally independent, keeping madrasahs open and supporting the students therein. The ulama also maintained their authority to challenge state law. To fund these new institutions and building projects, Naser repeatedly used tax farming to increase state revenue. Tax collectors routinely abused their power and the government was viewed as corrupt and unable to protect them from abuse by

2508-453: The upper class. This anti-government sentiment increased the ulama's power over the people because they were able to provide them security. Keddie states in her book, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran , that at the time "it was still considered a sign of greater status to be admitted to the ranks of the ulama than it was to become a member of the civil service." In 1852 Naser al-Din dismissed and executed Amir Kabir ,

2565-571: The war, Persia found itself devastated and divided as various regions of the country had broken away. In the 1920s, to re-exert central control, the Shah deployed the Cossack Brigade to crush the Azadistan movement in Tabriz. It was successful here but less effective in putting down another rebellion movement in the North, called the Jangali movement. With Iran in chaos and facing fragmentation there

2622-411: Was General Reza Khan , who started his military career as a private soldier in the Cossack Brigade and rose through its ranks to become a brigadier general . At the time of the Persian Cossack Brigade's formation the Shah's royal cavalry was described as having no training or discipline. The Qajar state at this point was very weak, lacking any professional military forces. In wars against the British,

2679-485: Was a political vacuum in Tehran , which had no functioning government. It is in this context of fragmentation and disorder that Reza Khan, an officer from the Cossack Brigade, rose to power as Iran's "man on horseback" who would save the country from chaos. Reza Khan had joined the brigade when he was sixteen years old and became the first Persian to be appointed as Brigadier-General of the brigade. He had risen rapidly through

2736-593: Was assassinated . He was the son of Mohammad Shah Qajar and Malek Jahan Khanom and the third longest reigning monarch in Iranian history after Shapur II of the Sassanid dynasty and Tahmasp I of the Safavid dynasty . Nasser al-Din Shah had sovereign power for close to 51 years. He was the first modern Persian monarch who formally visited Europe and wrote of his travels in his memoirs . A modernist, he allowed

2793-442: Was assassinated when visiting a shrine in Rayy near Tehran . The state under Naser al-Din was the recognized government of Iran, but its authority was undermined by local tribal leaders. The religious and tribal chieftains held quite a bit of autonomy over their communities. Naser al-Din was not effective in implementing his sovereignty over his people. Local groups had their own militias and oftentimes did not obey laws passed by

2850-417: Was born on 6 January 1858. He was the second son of Agha Ebrahim, an influential court minister of Georgian origin. When Ali Asghar was 15 years old, he began helping his father in politics. The next year, Ali Asghar and his father accompanied Naser al-Din Shah to his pilgrimage to the holy Shi'a cities of Najaf , Karbala , Kadhimiya , and Samarra . When Ali Asghar returned to his native Tehran, he

2907-515: Was dictatorial in his style of government. With his sanction, thousands of Bábis were killed, this was in reaction to an assassination attempt from a small group of Bábis. This treatment continued under his prime minister Amir Kabir, who even ordered the execution of the Báb – regarded as a manifestation of God to Bábí's and Baháʼís , and to historians as the founder of the Bábí religion . Unable to regain

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2964-943: Was not fluent in either language. Hekāyāt Pir o Javān ( حکایت پیر و جوان ; "The Tale of the Old and the Young") was attributed to him by many; it was one of the first Persian stories written in modern European style. He also wrote the book Diary of H.M. the Shah of Persia during his tour through Europe in A.D. 1873 . Sons Daughters Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan Mirza Ali Asghar Khan ( Persian : میرزا علی‌اصغر خان ; 6 January 1858 – 31 August 1907), also known by his honorific titles of Amin al-Soltan and Atabak , served as Prime Minister of Iran from 1887 to 1896 under Nasereddin Shah, from 1898 to 1904 under Mozaffareddin Shah and from May 1907 until his assassination in August 1907 under Moahammad Ali Shah . Ali Asghar

3021-609: Was one of the first photographers in Persia and was a patron of the art. He established a photography studio in Golestan Palace . Naser al-Din was also a poet . 200 couplets of his were recorded in the preface of Majma'ul Fusahā , a work by Reza-Qoli Khan Hedayat about poets of the Qajar period. He was interested in history and geography and had many books on these topics in his library. He also knew French and English , but

3078-537: Was promoted to commander of the royal escort cavalry, and in the following years continued to rise to higher offices, eventually being promoted to the treasurer of the army. After the death of his father in 1883, he received the latter's honorific title "Amin al-Soltan" and became the Justice Minister. A few years later he received the title of " Atabak " and took over the post of Prime Minister. After Naser's assassination in 1896, Ali Asghar helped by securing

3135-464: Was saved by the arrival of Colonel Kosagoskij who was to become the most effective commanding officer in its history. The immediate problem that he faced was the Muhajir aristocracy in the brigade, who considered themselves as an entitled elite. This privileged group often refused to work and reacted poorly to attempts at discipline. The Muhajir faction mutinied in 1895, dividing the brigade and seizing

3192-529: Was shortly appointed by Mohammad Ali Shah as the Prime Minister of Iran. At the time of Ali Asghar's re-appointment as prime minister, Iran was in chaos: the state owed money to the people who served them; British - Russian rivalry over Iran; Ottoman incursions on the west Iranian borders; and devastating rebellions. Ali Asghar managed to quickly stop the Ottomans, and also tried to make stability fix

3249-428: Was successful in introducing those western-based reforms, he was not successful in gaining complete sovereignty over his people or getting them to accept these reforms. The school he opened, Dar al-Funun, had very small enrollment numbers. The restrictions defined by Sh'ia Islam on the shah's collection of the zakat led to those funds going straight into the coffers of the ulama. Therefore, the financial autonomy given to

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