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118-710: It is often technically classified as a type of glass , in that it is a non-crystalline vitreous substance—hence its occasional historic designation as acrylic glass . The first acrylic acid was created in 1843. Methacrylic acid , derived from acrylic acid , was formulated in 1865. The reaction between methacrylic acid and methanol results in the ester methyl methacrylate . It was developed in 1928 in several different laboratories by many chemists, such as William R. Conn, Otto Röhm , and Walter Bauer, and first brought to market in 1933 by German Röhm & Haas AG (as of January 2019, part of Evonik Industries ) and its partner and former U.S. affiliate Rohm and Haas Company under

236-405: A glass (or vitreous solid) is a non-crystalline solid formed by rapid melt quenching . However, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, to describe any non-crystalline ( amorphous ) solid that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glass is an amorphous solid . Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of

354-436: A supercooled liquid , glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid. As in other amorphous solids , the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids . Due to chemical bonding constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra . The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods well below

472-809: A turquoise colour in glass, in contrast to copper(I) oxide (Cu 2 O) which gives a dull red-brown colour. Soda–lime sheet glass is typically used as a transparent glazing material, typically as windows in external walls of buildings. Float or rolled sheet glass products are cut to size either by scoring and snapping the material, laser cutting , water jets , or diamond-bladed saw. The glass may be thermally or chemically tempered (strengthened) for safety and bent or curved during heating. Surface coatings may be added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g. infrared or ultraviolet ), dirt-repellence (e.g. self-cleaning glass ), or switchable electrochromic coatings. Structural glazing systems represent one of

590-838: A brittle manner when under load, especially under an impact force , and is more prone to scratching than conventional inorganic glass, but modified PMMA is sometimes able to achieve high scratch and impact resistance. PMMA is a strong, tough, and lightweight material. It has a density of 1.17–1.20 g/cm, which is approximately half that of glass, which is generally, depending on composition, 2.2–2.53 g/cm. It also has good impact strength, higher than both glass and polystyrene, but significantly lower than polycarbonate and some engineered polymers. PMMA ignites at 460 °C (860 °F) and burns , forming carbon dioxide , water , carbon monoxide , and low-molecular-weight compounds, including formaldehyde . PMMA transmits up to 92% of visible light (3 mm (0.12 in) thickness), and gives

708-558: A chemical necessary in synthesizing PETN , a high explosive: An aqueous solution of formaldehyde can be useful as a disinfectant as it kills most bacteria and fungi (including their spores). It is used as an additive in vaccine manufacturing to inactivate toxins and pathogens. Formaldehyde releasers are used as biocides in personal care products such as cosmetics. Although present at levels not normally considered harmful, they are known to cause allergic contact dermatitis in certain sensitised individuals. Aquarists use formaldehyde as

826-485: A clear "ring" sound when struck. However, lead glass cannot withstand high temperatures well. Lead oxide also facilitates the solubility of other metal oxides and is used in coloured glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders . The high ionic radius of

944-470: A common state. The trimer 1,3,5-trioxane, (CH 2 O) 3 , is a typical oligomer. Many cyclic oligomers of other sizes have been isolated. Similarly, formaldehyde hydrates to give the geminal diol methanediol , which condenses further to form hydroxy-terminated oligomers HO(CH 2 O) n H. The polymer is called paraformaldehyde . The higher concentration of formaldehyde—the more equilibrium shifts towards polymerization. Diluting with water or increasing

1062-443: A green tint in thick sections. Manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ), which gives glass a purple colour, may be added to remove the green tint given by FeO. FeO and chromium(III) oxide (Cr 2 O 3 ) additives are used in the production of green bottles. Iron (III) oxide , on the other-hand, produces yellow or yellow-brown glass. Low concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of cobalt oxide (CoO) produce rich, deep blue cobalt glass . Chromium

1180-408: A human timescale. Silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically pure silica. It has very low thermal expansion and excellent resistance to thermal shock , being able to survive immersion in water while red hot, resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard. It is also transparent to

1298-405: A lighter alternative to traditional glass. Molecular liquids, electrolytes , molten salts , and aqueous solutions are mixtures of different molecules or ions that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or transient hydrogen bonds . In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that

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1416-561: A long period at a temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur's glass porcelain is produced. Although generally transparent to visible light, glasses may be opaque to other wavelengths of light . While silicate glasses are generally opaque to infrared wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal fluoride and chalcogenide glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of 7 to 18 μm. The addition of metallic oxides results in different coloured glasses as

1534-482: A mass of hot semi-molten glass, inflating it into a bubble using a hollow blowpipe, and forming it into the required shape by blowing, swinging, rolling, or moulding. While hot, the glass can be worked using hand tools, cut with shears, and additional parts such as handles or feet attached by welding. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of

1652-463: A mold. Objects like insects or coins, or even dangerous chemicals in breakable quartz ampules, may be embedded in such "cast" blocks, for display and safe handling. Glass Glass is an amorphous ( non-crystalline ) solid. Because it is often transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window panes, tableware , and optics . Some common objects made of glass are named after

1770-453: A non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries . Glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers. The most commercially important property of glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of

1888-401: A plastic resin with glass fibres . It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres. These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin. Fibreglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant and is a good insulator enabling its use as building insulation material and for electronic housing for consumer products. Fibreglass

2006-677: A positive correlation between exposure to formaldehyde and the development of leukemia , particularly myeloid leukemia . Nasopharyngeal and sinonasal cancers are relatively rare, with a combined annual incidence in the United States of < 4,000 cases. About 30,000 cases of myeloid leukemia occur in the United States each year. Some evidence suggests that workplace exposure to formaldehyde contributes to sinonasal cancers. Professionals exposed to formaldehyde in their occupation, such as funeral industry workers and embalmers , showed an increased risk of leukemia and brain cancer compared with

2124-468: A protein to form methylol , which loses a water molecule to form a Schiff base . The Schiff base can then react with DNA or protein to create a cross-linked product. This reaction is the basis for the most common process of chemical fixation . Formaldehyde is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen into formic acid . For this reason, commercial formaldehyde is typically contaminated with formic acid. Formaldehyde can be hydrogenated into methanol . In

2242-788: A reflection of about 4% from each of its surfaces due to its refractive index (1.4905 at 589.3   nm). It filters ultraviolet (UV) light at wavelengths below about 300 nm (similar to ordinary window glass). Some manufacturers add coatings or additives to PMMA to improve absorption in the 300–400 nm range. PMMA passes infrared light of up to 2,800 nm and blocks IR of longer wavelengths up to 25,000 nm. Colored PMMA varieties allow specific IR wavelengths to pass while blocking visible light (for remote control or heat sensor applications, for example). PMMA swells and dissolves in many organic solvents ; it also has poor resistance to many other chemicals due to its easily hydrolyzed ester groups. Nevertheless, its environmental stability

2360-462: A refractive index of 1.4 to 2.4, and an Abbe number (which characterises dispersion) of 15 to 100. The refractive index may be modified by high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives. Glass transparency results from the absence of grain boundaries which diffusely scatter light in polycrystalline materials. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by maintaining them for

2478-593: A significant danger to human health. In 2011, the US National Toxicology Program described formaldehyde as "known to be a human carcinogen". Concerns are associated with chronic (long-term) exposure by inhalation as may happen from thermal or chemical decomposition of formaldehyde-based resins and the production of formaldehyde resulting from the combustion of a variety of organic compounds (for example, exhaust gases). As formaldehyde resins are used in many construction materials , it

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2596-542: A significant source of formaldehyde in homes. The eyes are most sensitive to formaldehyde exposure: The lowest level at which many people can begin to smell formaldehyde ranges between 0.05 and 1 ppm. The maximum concentration value at the workplace is 0.3 ppm. In controlled chamber studies, individuals begin to sense eye irritation at about 0.5 ppm; 5 to 20 percent report eye irritation at 0.5 to 1 ppm; and greater certainty for sensory irritation occurred at 1 ppm and above. While some agencies have used

2714-412: A spinning metal disk. Several alloys have been produced in layers with thicknesses exceeding 1 millimetre. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sells several zirconium -based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys. Experimental evidence indicates that

2832-435: A structural analogue of silica, fluoride , aluminate , phosphate , borate , and chalcogenide glasses) have physicochemical properties useful for their application in fibre-optic waveguides in communication networks and other specialised technological applications. Silica-free glasses may often have poor glass-forming tendencies. Novel techniques, including containerless processing by aerodynamic levitation (cooling

2950-413: A structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume , entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through

3068-590: A treatment for the parasites Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and Cryptocaryon irritans . Formaldehyde is one of the main disinfectants recommended for destroying anthrax . Formaldehyde is also approved for use in the manufacture of animal feeds in the US. It is an antimicrobial agent used to maintain complete animal feeds or feed ingredients Salmonella negative for up to 21 days. Formaldehyde preserves or fixes tissue or cells. The process involves cross-linking of primary amino groups . The European Union has banned

3186-521: A wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the UV and IR ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary. Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower

3304-642: Is 105 °C (221 °F). The T g values of commercial grades of PMMA range from 85 to 165 °C (185 to 329 °F); the range is so wide because of the vast number of commercial compositions that are copolymers with co-monomers other than methyl methacrylate. PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature; i.e., it is below its T g . The forming temperature starts at the glass transition temperature and goes up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including injection molding , compression molding , and extrusion . The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by cell casting , but in this case,

3422-418: Is 3.25 × 10 /°C as compared to about 9 × 10 /°C for a typical soda–lime glass ). They are, therefore, less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion and thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock . They are commonly used for e.g. labware , household cookware , and sealed beam car head lamps . The addition of lead(II) oxide into silicate glass lowers the melting point and viscosity of

3540-855: Is a common precursor to more complex compounds and materials. In approximate order of decreasing consumption, products generated from formaldehyde include urea formaldehyde resin , melamine resin , phenol formaldehyde resin , polyoxymethylene plastics , 1,4-butanediol , and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate . The textile industry uses formaldehyde-based resins as finishers to make fabrics crease-resistant. When condensed with phenol , urea , or melamine , formaldehyde produces, respectively, hard thermoset phenol formaldehyde resin, urea formaldehyde resin, and melamine resin. These polymers are permanent adhesives used in plywood and carpeting . They are also foamed to make insulation , or cast into moulded products. Production of formaldehyde resins accounts for more than half of formaldehyde consumption. Formaldehyde

3658-552: Is a common volcanic glass with high silica (SiO 2 ) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly. Impactite is a form of glass formed by the impact of a meteorite , where Moldavite (found in central and eastern Europe), and Libyan desert glass (found in areas in the eastern Sahara , the deserts of eastern Libya and western Egypt ) are notable examples. Vitrification of quartz can also occur when lightning strikes sand , forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites . Trinitite

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3776-400: Is a commonly used material in modern dentistry, particularly in the fabrication of dental prosthetics, artificial teeth, and orthodontic appliances. Methyl methacrylate " synthetic resin " for casting (simply the bulk liquid chemical) may be used in conjunction with a polymerization catalyst such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), to produce hardened transparent PMMA in any shape, from

3894-714: Is a glassy residue formed from the desert floor sand at the Trinity nuclear bomb test site. Edeowie glass , found in South Australia , is proposed to originate from Pleistocene grassland fires, lightning strikes, or hypervelocity impact by one or several asteroids or comets . Naturally occurring obsidian glass was used by Stone Age societies as it fractures along very sharp edges, making it ideal for cutting tools and weapons. Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to smelt iron. Archaeological evidence suggests that

4012-418: Is a very powerful colouring agent, yielding dark green. Sulphur combined with carbon and iron salts produces amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Cadmium sulfide produces imperial red , and combined with selenium can produce shades of yellow, orange, and red. Addition of copper(II) oxide (CuO) produces

4130-449: Is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture ( glass batch ), stirring the melt, and crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing. Colour in glass may be obtained by addition of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or colour centres ). While ordinary soda–lime glass appears colourless in thin section, iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities produce

4248-407: Is also a precursor to polyfunctional alcohols such as pentaerythritol , which is used to make paints and explosives . Other formaldehyde derivatives include methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, an important component in polyurethane paints and foams, and hexamine , which is used in phenol-formaldehyde resins as well as the explosive RDX . Condensation with acetaldehyde affords pentaerythritol ,

4366-514: Is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when tensile strength , flexural strength , transparency , polishability, and UV tolerance are more important than impact strength , chemical resistance, and heat resistance. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and is a far better choice for laser cutting. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. Non-modified PMMA behaves in

4484-515: Is an intermediate in the oxidation (or combustion ) of methane , as well as of other carbon compounds, e.g. in forest fires , automobile exhaust, and tobacco smoke . When produced in the atmosphere by the action of sunlight and oxygen on atmospheric methane and other hydrocarbons , it becomes part of smog . Formaldehyde has also been detected in outer space. Formaldehyde and its adducts are ubiquitous in nature. Food may contain formaldehyde at levels 1–100 mg/kg. Formaldehyde, formed in

4602-526: Is classified as a carcinogen and can cause respiratory and skin irritation upon exposure. Formaldehyde is more complicated than many simple carbon compounds in that it adopts several diverse forms. These compounds can often be used interchangeably and can be interconverted. A small amount of stabilizer , such as methanol , is usually added to suppress oxidation and polymerization . A typical commercial-grade formalin may contain 10–12% methanol in addition to various metallic impurities. "Formaldehyde"

4720-750: Is exploited in ChIP-on-chip or ChIP-sequencing genomics experiments, where DNA-binding proteins are cross-linked to their cognate binding sites on the chromosome and analyzed to determine what genes are regulated by the proteins. Formaldehyde is also used as a denaturing agent in RNA gel electrophoresis , preventing RNA from forming secondary structures. A solution of 4% formaldehyde fixes pathology tissue specimens at about one mm per hour at room temperature. Formaldehyde and 18  M (concentrated) sulfuric acid makes Marquis reagent —which can identify alkaloids and other compounds. In photography, formaldehyde

4838-676: Is extensively used for fibreglass , used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.), top-of-stove cookware, and halogen bulb glass. The addition of barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses. Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths. Fluorine lowers

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4956-455: Is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics . The most common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as lenses , windows , mirrors , and prisms . The key optical properties refractive index , dispersion , and transmission , of glass are strongly dependent on chemical composition and, to a lesser degree, its thermal history. Optical glass typically has

5074-489: Is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The sags and ripples observed in old glass were already there the day it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness (the near-perfect float glass used today only became widespread in the 1960s). A 2017 study computed the rate of flow of the medieval glass used in Westminster Abbey from

5192-440: Is one of the more common indoor air pollutants . At concentrations above 0.1 ppm in air, formaldehyde can irritate the eyes and mucous membranes . Formaldehyde inhaled at this concentration may cause headaches, a burning sensation in the throat, and difficulty breathing, and can trigger or aggravate asthma symptoms. The CDC considers formaldehyde as a systemic poison. Formaldehyde poisoning can cause permanent changes in

5310-511: Is poly(methyl 2-methylprop en oate). (It is a common mistake to use "an" instead of "en".) Although PMMA is often called simply "acrylic", acrylic can also refer to other polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile . Notable trade names and brands include Acrylite, Altuglas, Astariglas, Cho Chen, Crystallite, Cyrolite, Hesalite (when used in Omega watches ), Lucite, Optix, Oroglas, PerClax, Perspex, Plexiglas, R-Cast, and Sumipex. PMMA

5428-901: Is produced by forcing molten glass through a fine mesh by centripetal force and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of high-velocity air. The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels. Besides common silica-based glasses many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including metals , aluminates , phosphates , borates , chalcogenides , fluorides , germanates (glasses based on GeO 2 ), tellurites (glasses based on TeO 2 ), antimonates (glasses based on Sb 2 O 3 ), arsenates (glasses based on As 2 O 3 ), titanates (glasses based on TiO 2 ), tantalates (glasses based on Ta 2 O 5 ), nitrates , carbonates , plastics , acrylic , and many other substances. Some of these glasses (e.g. Germanium dioxide (GeO 2 , Germania), in many respects

5546-559: Is produced by paints, varnishes , floor finishes, and cigarette smoking as well. In July 2016, the U.S. EPA released a prepublication version of its final rule on Formaldehyde Emission Standards for Composite Wood Products. These new rules impact manufacturers, importers, distributors, and retailers of products containing composite wood, including fiberboard, particleboard, and various laminated products, who must comply with more stringent record-keeping and labeling requirements. The U.S. EPA allows no more than 0.016 ppm formaldehyde in

5664-417: Is produced via several enzyme-catalyzed routes. Living beings, including humans, produce formaldehyde as part of their metabolism. Formaldehyde is key to several bodily functions (e.g. epigenetics ), but its amount must also be tightly controlled to avoid self-poisoning. Formaldehyde is catabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase ADH5 and aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2 . Formaldehyde is a building block in

5782-573: Is rarely sold as an end product, since it is not optimized for most applications. Rather, modified formulations with varying amounts of other comonomers , additives, and fillers are created for uses where specific properties are required. For example: PMMA is routinely produced by emulsion polymerization , solution polymerization , and bulk polymerization . Generally, radical initiation is used (including living polymerization methods), but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. The glass transition temperature ( T g ) of atactic PMMA

5900-462: Is stored as aqueous solutions ( formalin ), which consists mainly of the hydrate CH 2 (OH) 2 . It is the simplest of the aldehydes ( R−CHO ). As a precursor to many other materials and chemical compounds, in 2006 the global production of formaldehyde was estimated at 12 million tons per year. It is mainly used in the production of industrial resins , e.g., for particle board and coatings . Small amounts also occur naturally. Formaldehyde

6018-461: Is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical tensile strength for pure, flawless glass estimated at 14 to 35 gigapascals (2,000,000 to 5,100,000 psi) due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture. However, the presence of scratches, bubbles, and other microscopic flaws lead to a typical range of 14 to 175 megapascals (2,000 to 25,400 psi) in most commercial glasses. Several processes such as toughening can increase

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6136-408: Is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead, the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at T g . The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory . Generally, a glass exists in

6254-494: Is superior to most other plastics such as polystyrene and polyethylene, and therefore it is often the material of choice for outdoor applications. PMMA has a maximum water absorption ratio of 0.3–0.4% by weight. Tensile strength decreases with increased water absorption. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively high at (5–10)×10 °C. The Futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyester plastic, polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methylmethacrylate); one of them

6372-436: Is transparent, easily formed, and most suitable for window glass and tableware. However, it has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat. Soda–lime glass is typically used for windows , bottles , light bulbs , and jars . Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex , Duran ) typically contain 5–13% boron trioxide (B 2 O 3 ). Borosilicate glasses have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE

6490-432: Is used in low concentrations for the process C-41 (color negative film) stabilizer in the final wash step, as well as in the process E-6 pre-bleach step, to make it unnecessary in the final wash. Due to improvements in dye coupler chemistry, more modern (2006 or later) E-6 and C-41 films do not need formaldehyde, as their dyes are already stable. In view of its widespread use, toxicity, and volatility, formaldehyde poses

6608-458: The Cannizzaro reaction , formaldehyde and base react to produce formic acid and methanol, a disproportionation reaction . Formaldehyde reacts with many compounds, resulting in hydroxymethylation : The resulting hydroxymethyl derivatives typically react further. Thus, amines give hexahydro-1,3,5-triazines : Similarly, when combined with hydrogen sulfide , it forms trithiane : In

6726-488: The Karlsruhe Congress . The compound was identified as an aldehyde by August Wilhelm von Hofmann , who first announced its production by passing methanol vapor in air over hot platinum wire. With modifications, Hoffmann's method remains the basis of the present day industrial route. Solution routes to formaldehyde also entail oxidation of methanol or iodomethane . Formaldehyde is produced industrially by

6844-524: The Late Bronze Age , there was a rapid growth in glassmaking technology in Egypt and Western Asia . Archaeological finds from this period include coloured glass ingots , vessels, and beads. Much early glass production relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stoneworking , such as grinding and carving glass in a cold state. The term glass has its origins in the late Roman Empire , in

6962-535: The Renaissance period in Europe, the use of large stained glass windows became much less prevalent, although stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century. During the 13th century, the island of Murano , Venice , became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities. Murano glass makers developed

7080-537: The Roman glass making centre at Trier (located in current-day Germany) where the late-Latin term glesum originated, likely from a Germanic word for a transparent , lustrous substance. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, funerary , and industrial contexts, as well as trade items in marketplaces in distant provinces. Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of

7198-713: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classified it as a probable human carcinogen , and after more studies the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1995 also classified it as a probable human carcinogen . Further information and evaluation of all known data led the IARC to reclassify formaldehyde as a known human carcinogen associated with nasal sinus cancer and nasopharyngeal cancer . Studies in 2009 and 2010 have also shown

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7316-476: The carbon–oxygen bond and around 1.11 Å for the carbon–hydrogen bond , while the H–C–H bond angle is 117°, close to the 120° angle found in an ideal trigonal planar molecule . Some excited electronic states of formaldehyde are pyramidal rather than planar as in the ground state . Processes in the upper atmosphere contribute more than 80% of the total formaldehyde in the environment. Formaldehyde

7434-425: The chemical equation : The silver-based catalyst usually operates at a higher temperature, about 650 °C. Two chemical reactions on it simultaneously produce formaldehyde: that shown above and the dehydrogenation reaction: In principle, formaldehyde could be generated by oxidation of methane , but this route is not industrially viable because the methanol is more easily oxidized than methane. Formaldehyde

7552-519: The comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON) . Formaldehyde was discovered in 1859 by the Russian chemist Aleksandr Butlerov (1828–1886) when he attempted to synthesize methanediol ("methylene glycol") from iodomethane and silver oxalate . In his paper, Butlerov referred to formaldehyde as "dioxymethylen" (methylene dioxide) because his empirical formula for it was incorrect, as atomic weights were not precisely determined until

7670-465: The dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and lowers the polarizability of the material. Fluoride silicate glasses are used in the manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. Glass-ceramic materials contain both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramic phases. They are formed by controlled nucleation and partial crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment. Crystalline grains are often embedded within

7788-436: The glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda–lime glass for mass production is melted in glass-melting furnaces . Smaller-scale furnaces for speciality glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed . This may be achieved manually by glassblowing , which involves gathering

7906-438: The nervous system 's functions. A 1988 Canadian study of houses with urea-formaldehyde foam insulation found that formaldehyde levels as low as 0.046 ppm were positively correlated with eye and nasal irritation. A 2009 review of studies has shown a strong association between exposure to formaldehyde and the development of childhood asthma . A theory was proposed for the carcinogenesis of formaldehyde in 1978. In 1987

8024-591: The trademark Plexiglas. Polymethyl methacrylate was discovered in the early 1930s by British chemists Rowland Hill and John Crawford at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in the United Kingdom. ICI registered the product under the trademark Perspex. About the same time, chemist and industrialist Otto Röhm of Röhm and Haas AG in Germany attempted to produce safety glass by polymerizing methyl methacrylate between two layers of glass. The polymer separated from

8142-510: The 10th century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals , with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint-Denis . By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle , Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral . With the change in architectural style during

8260-461: The 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass . In the 1950s, Pilkington Bros. , England , developed the float glass process, producing high-quality distortion-free flat sheets of glass by floating on molten tin . Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since

8378-622: The M1911A1 pistol or clear handle grips for the M1 bayonet or theater knifes so that soldiers could put small photos of loved ones or pin-up girls' pictures inside. They were called "Sweetheart Grips" or "Pin-up Grips". Others were used to make handles for theater knives made from scrap materials and people who made them got artistic or creative. Civilian applications followed after the war. Common orthographic stylings include polymethyl methacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate . The full IUPAC chemical name

8496-687: The Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other applications in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy collectors. In the 21st century, glass manufacturers have developed different brands of chemically strengthened glass for widespread application in touchscreens for smartphones , tablet computers , and many other types of information appliances . These include Gorilla Glass , developed and manufactured by Corning , AGC Inc. 's Dragontrail and Schott AG 's Xensation. Glass

8614-543: The Pb ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (10 vs 10  Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C). Aluminosilicate glass typically contains 5–10% alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Aluminosilicate glass tends to be more difficult to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions but has excellent thermal resistance and durability. Aluminosilicate glass

8732-533: The UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Once

8850-719: The action of water, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals. Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or dissolve under some conditions. The materials that make up a particular glass composition affect how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline earth elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions. The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from 2.2 grams per cubic centimetre (2,200 kg/m ) for fused silica to 7.2 grams per cubic centimetre (7,200 kg/m ) for dense flint glass. Glass

8968-508: The air in new buildings constructed for that agency. A U.S. EPA study found a new home measured 0.076 ppm when brand new and 0.045 ppm after 30 days. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has also announced limits on the formaldehyde levels in trailers purchased by that agency. The EPA recommends the use of "exterior-grade" pressed-wood products with phenol instead of urea resin to limit formaldehyde exposure, since pressed-wood products containing formaldehyde resins are often

9086-423: The catalytic oxidation of methanol . The most common catalysts are silver metal, iron(III) oxide , iron molybdenum oxides (e.g. iron(III) molybdate ) with a molybdenum -enriched surface, or vanadium oxides . In the commonly used formox process , methanol and oxygen react at c. 250–400 °C in presence of iron oxide in combination with molybdenum and/or vanadium to produce formaldehyde according to

9204-411: The cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide ), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during

9322-427: The crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C. Fibreglass (also called glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a composite material made by reinforcing

9440-683: The desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability ( glass container coatings , glass container internal treatment ), strength ( toughened glass , bulletproof glass , windshields ), or optical properties ( insulated glazing , anti-reflective coating ). New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because

9558-585: The entire surface of the cut parts, at great distances from the stressed edge. Annealing the PMMA sheet/parts is therefore an obligatory post-processing step when intending to chemically bond lasercut parts together. In the majority of applications, PMMA will not shatter. Rather, it breaks into large dull pieces. Since PMMA is softer and more easily scratched than glass, scratch-resistant coatings are often added to PMMA sheets to protect it (as well as possible other functions). Pure poly(methyl methacrylate) homopolymer

9676-441: The environment, because it is broken down within a few hours by sunlight or by bacteria present in soil or water. Humans metabolize formaldehyde quickly, converting it to formic acid , so it does not accumulate. It nonetheless presents significant health concerns , as a contaminant . Formaldehyde appears to be a useful probe in astrochemistry due to prominence of the 1 10 ←1 11 and 2 11 ←2 12 K -doublet transitions. It

9794-466: The exceptionally clear colourless glass cristallo , so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses. In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected in Egypt and Syria. Towards the end of the 17th century, Bohemia became an important region for glass production, remaining so until

9912-459: The first true synthetic glass was made in Lebanon and the coastal north Syria , Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt . The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were beads , perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metalworking ( slags ) or during the production of faience , a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing . Early glass

10030-745: The form of sheets affords to shatter resistant panels for building windows, skylights, bulletproof security barriers, signs and displays, sanitary ware (bathtubs), LCD screens, furniture and many other applications. It is also used for coating polymers based on MMA provides outstanding stability against environmental conditions with reduced emission of VOC. Methacrylate polymers are used extensively in medical and dental applications where purity and stability are critical to performance. In particular, acrylic-type lenses are useful for cataract surgery in patients that have recurrent ocular inflammation (uveitis), as acrylic material induces less inflammation. Due to its aforementioned biocompatibility, poly(methyl methacrylate)

10148-754: The former Roman Empire in China , the Baltics , the Middle East , and India . The Romans perfected cameo glass , produced by etching and carving through fused layers of different colours to produce a design in relief on the glass object. In post-classical West Africa, Benin was a manufacturer of glass and glass beads. Glass was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages . Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. From

10266-417: The general population. Other factors are important in determining individual risk for the development of leukemia or nasopharyngeal cancer. In yeast, formaldehyde is found to perturb pathways for DNA repair and cell cycle. In the residential environment, formaldehyde exposure comes from a number of routes; formaldehyde can be emitted by treated wood products, such as plywood or particle board , but it

10384-555: The glass and melt phases. Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms. Many polymer thermoplastics familiar to everyday use are glasses. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear , polymer glasses ( acrylic glass , polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate ) are

10502-636: The glass as a clear plastic sheet, which Röhm gave the trademarked name Plexiglas in 1933. Both Perspex and Plexiglas were commercialized in the late 1930s. In the United States, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company (now DuPont Company) subsequently introduced its own product under the trademark Lucite. In 1936 ICI Acrylics (now Lucite International) began the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass. During World War II both Allied and Axis forces used acrylic glass for submarine periscopes and aircraft windscreen, canopies, and gun turrets. Scraps of acrylic were also used to make clear pistol grips for

10620-493: The glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. However, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids. Glass can form naturally from volcanic magma. Obsidian

10738-406: The glass transition temperature is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity in solids ). Though atomic motion at glass surfaces can be observed, and viscosity on the order of 10 –10 Pa s can be measured in glass, such a high value reinforces the fact that glass would not change shape appreciably over even large periods of time. For melt quenching, if the cooling

10856-458: The liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. Examples include LiCl: R H 2 O (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4< R <8. sugar glass , or Ca 0.4 K 0.6 (NO 3 ) 1.4 . Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells. Following

10974-622: The material, e.g. "glass" , " glasses ", " magnifying glass ". Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling ( quenching ) of the molten form. Some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring, and obsidian has been used to make arrowheads and knives since the Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests glassmaking dates back to at least 3600 BC in Mesopotamia , Egypt , or Syria . The earliest known glass objects were beads , perhaps created accidentally during metalworking or

11092-481: The melt whilst it floats on a gas stream) or splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used to increase the cooling rate or to reduce crystal nucleation triggers. In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto

11210-433: The melt. The high density of lead glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K 2 O) + soda (Na 2 O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion . Lead glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving rise to

11328-619: The melting temperature and simplify glass processing. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 , "soda") is a common additive and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature. However, sodium silicate is water-soluble , so lime (CaO, calcium oxide , generally obtained from limestone ), along with magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), are commonly added to improve chemical durability. Soda–lime glasses (Na 2 O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) account for over 75% of manufactured glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight. Soda–lime–silicate glass

11446-504: The metabolism of the amino acids serine and threonine , is found in the bloodstream of humans and other primates at concentrations of approximately 50  micromolar . Experiments in which animals are exposed to an atmosphere containing isotopically labeled formaldehyde have demonstrated that even in deliberately exposed animals, the majority of formaldehyde-DNA adducts found in non-respiratory tissues are derived from endogenously produced formaldehyde. Formaldehyde does not accumulate in

11564-410: The metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of light corresponding to specific colours. In the manufacturing process, glasses can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes. The finished product is brittle but can be laminated or tempered to enhance durability. Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and can mostly withstand

11682-409: The most significant architectural innovations of modern times, where glass buildings now often dominate the skylines of many modern cities . These systems use stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush exterior. Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and glass conservatories of

11800-456: The nineteenth century Formaldehyde Formaldehyde ( / f ɔːr ˈ m æ l d ɪ h aɪ d / for- MAL -di-hide , US also / f ə r -/ fər- ) ( systematic name methanal ) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH 2 O and structure H−CHO , more precisely H 2 C=O . The compound is a pungent, colourless gas that polymerises spontaneously into paraformaldehyde . It

11918-517: The polymerization and molding steps occur concurrently. The strength of the material is higher than molding grades owing to its extremely high molecular mass . Rubber toughening has been used to increase the toughness of PMMA to overcome its brittle behavior in response to applied loads. Being transparent and durable, PMMA is a versatile material and has been used in a wide range of fields and applications such as rear-lights and instrument clusters for vehicles, appliances, and lenses for glasses. PMMA in

12036-610: The presence of acids, it participates in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions with aromatic compounds resulting in hydroxymethylated derivatives: When conducted in the presence of hydrogen chloride, the product is the chloromethyl compound, as described in the Blanc chloromethylation . If the arene is electron-rich, as in phenols, elaborate condensations ensue. With 4-substituted phenols one obtains calixarenes . Phenol results in polymers. Many amino acids react with formaldehyde. Cysteine converts to thioproline . Formaldehyde

12154-922: The production of faience , which is a form of pottery using lead glazes. Due to its ease of formability into any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as bowls , vases , bottles , jars and drinking glasses. Soda–lime glass , containing around 70% silica , accounts for around 90% of modern manufactured glass. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed with vitreous enamels , leading to its use in stained glass windows and other glass art objects. The refractive , reflective and transmission properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses , prisms , and optoelectronics materials. Extruded glass fibres have applications as optical fibres in communications networks, thermal insulating material when matted as glass wool to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic ( fibreglass ). The standard definition of

12272-424: The selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating selenium dioxide (SeO 2 ). Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH) 3 ) over alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity

12390-454: The solution temperature, as well as adding alcohols (such as methanol or ethanol) lowers that tendency. Gaseous formaldehyde polymerizes at active sites on vessel walls, but the mechanism of the reaction is unknown. Small amounts of hydrogen chloride , boron trifluoride , or stannic chloride present in gaseous formaldehyde provide the catalytic effect and make the polymerization rapid. Formaldehyde forms cross-links by first combining with

12508-603: The start of the 20th century. By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in England . In about 1675, George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass, with cut glass becoming fashionable in the 18th century. Ornamental glass objects became an important art medium during the Art Nouveau period in the late 19th century. Throughout the 20th century, new mass production techniques led to

12626-469: The strength of glass. Carefully drawn flawless glass fibres can be produced with a strength of up to 11.5 gigapascals (1,670,000 psi). The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption

12744-564: The surface of the material. Laser cutting may be used to form intricate designs from PMMA sheets. PMMA vaporizes to gaseous compounds (including its monomers) upon laser cutting, so a very clean cut is made, and cutting is performed very easily. However, the pulsed lasercutting introduces high internal stresses, which on exposure to solvents produce undesirable "stress- crazing " at the cut edge and several millimetres deep. Even ammonium-based glass-cleaner and almost everything short of soap-and-water produces similar undesirable crazing, sometimes over

12862-406: The synthesis of many other compounds of specialised and industrial significance. It exhibits most of the chemical properties of other aldehydes but is more reactive. Monomeric CH 2 O is a gas and is rarely encountered in the laboratory. Aqueous formaldehyde, unlike some other small aldehydes (which need specific conditions to oligomerize through aldol condensation ) oligomerizes spontaneously at

12980-460: The system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a first-order transition to an amorphous form (dubbed "q-glass") on rapid cooling from the melt. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images indicate that q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles with uniform spherical growth in all directions. While x-ray diffraction reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a nucleation barrier exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between

13098-708: The use of formaldehyde as a biocide (including embalming ) under the Biocidal Products Directive (98/8/EC) due to its carcinogenic properties. Countries with a strong tradition of embalming corpses, such as Ireland and other colder-weather countries, have raised concerns. Despite reports to the contrary, no decision on the inclusion of formaldehyde on Annex I of the Biocidal Products Directive for product-type 22 (embalming and taxidermist fluids) had been made as of September 2009 . Formaldehyde-based crosslinking

13216-451: The widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making it practical as a building material and enabling new applications of glass. In the 1920s a mould -etch process was developed, in which art was etched directly into the mould so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap glassware in

13334-402: The year 1268. The study found that the room temperature viscosity of this glass was roughly 10   Pa · s which is about 10 times less viscous than a previous estimate made in 1998, which focused on soda-lime silicate glass. Even with this lower viscosity, the study authors calculated that the maximum flow rate of medieval glass is 1 nm per billion years, making it impossible to observe in

13452-580: Was first used as a generic trademark in 1893 following a previous trade name, "formalin". Molecular formaldehyde contains a central carbon atom with a double bond to the oxygen atom and a single bond to each hydrogen atom . This structure is summarised by the condensed formula H 2 C=O. The molecule is planar, Y-shaped and its molecular symmetry belongs to the C 2v point group . The precise molecular geometry of gaseous formaldehyde has been determined by gas electron diffraction and microwave spectroscopy . The bond lengths are 1.21 Å for

13570-417: Was found to be degrading by cyanobacteria and Archaea . PMMA can be joined using cyanoacrylate cement (commonly known as superglue ), with heat (welding), or by using chlorinated solvents such as dichloromethane or trichloromethane (chloroform) to dissolve the plastic at the joint, which then fuses and sets, forming an almost invisible weld . Scratches may easily be removed by polishing or by heating

13688-453: Was originally used in the United Kingdom and United States during World War II to manufacture radomes . Uses of fibreglass include building and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials. Glass-fibre wool is an excellent thermal and sound insulation material, commonly used in buildings (e.g. attic and cavity wall insulation ), and plumbing (e.g. pipe insulation ), and soundproofing . It

13806-556: Was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections, and is technically faience rather than true glass, which did not appear until the 15th century BC. However, red-orange glass beads excavated from the Indus Valley Civilization dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early as 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt. During

13924-449: Was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium . Since its initial detection in 1969, it has been observed in many regions of the galaxy . Because of the widespread interest in interstellar formaldehyde, it has been extensively studied, yielding new extragalactic sources. A proposed mechanism for the formation is the hydrogenation of CO ice: HCN , HNC , H 2 CO, and dust have also been observed inside

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