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45-538: The eleven bands are as follows: The eleven bands of the Pit River Tribe originally spoke two related languages, nine of them speaking Achumawi and two speaking Atsugewi (Atsuge and Apwaruke). They are closely related and are classified as the Palaihnihan family of languages, with uncertain external relations. Most members of the tribe now speak English. Achumawi is critically endangered, and Atsugewi

90-851: A casino, a gas station and convenience store, and a large commercial cannabis growing facility which was raided by US and California drug agents in July 2015. They would use amelanchier to create a sort of body armor, the wood was made into a heavy robe or overcoat and corset armor and used for fighting. Members of the Pit River tribe would also sell taxus brevifolia to the Ukiah . The bulbs dug from meadows and acorns from oaks were an important source of food. A ground up form of these plants were stored for winter use. The Atsugewi have 68 documented uses for various plants. Achumawi language The Achumawi language (also Achomawi or Pit River language )

135-777: A consonant and vowel (CV), and a heavy syllable either contains a long vowel (CVˑ) or is closed with a second consonant (CVC). Unlike the neighboring and related language Atsugewi , Achumawi has contrastive high and low tones. The Achumawi language does not have gender but it has two forms of the copula ("to be") distinguishing animate and inanimate. The verb stem comprises one or more verb roots plus optional adverbial affixes. Inflectional affixes on verbs distinguish singular, dual, and plural number, and suffixes may optionally express severality and plurality of nouns. Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verb stems or participles, and some verb stems are formed by noun incorporation. The language has independent adjectives and numerals. Today,

180-624: A cross between A. laevis and either A. arborea or A. canadensis . While A. lamarckii is known to be of North American origin, probably from eastern Canada, it is not known to occur naturally in the wild in North America. The origin of the generic name Amelanchier is probably derived from amalenquièr , amelanchièr , the Provençal names of the European Amelanchier ovalis . The name serviceberry comes from

225-606: A new huge wave of migrants into California, many of whom were ruthless abusers and murderers of Indian people. 1851-53 - U.S. Congress and California Legislature created various laws that deny Indians of land rights and effectively extinguished all aboriginal title in the state, paving the way for continued genocide and land theft , with no treaties or protections for the Pit River Indians. 1850s and 1860s: The movement of white emigrants into Pit River territory caused more and more Pit River displacement and changes to

270-454: A separate family as for keeping Achomawi and Shasta apart, as ethnologists did for half a century. What lay at the bottom of this inconsistence was that the Atsugewi live in a region topographically tributary to the larger Achomawi habitat; that the two tribes were in close association and friendly; and that they followed very similar customs. The phenomenon of non-reciprocal intelligibility

315-530: Is a matter of bilingualism in the smaller and more dependent of two exogamous communities; Kroeber (1925:308) estimated that the Achumawi were ten times more numerous than the Atsugewi. Achumawi has 29 consonants. The stops and affricate (aside from the marginally contrastive glottal stop ) are in three series, plain, aspirated, and laryngealized or glottalized . The aspirated series is contrastive only syllable-initially and probably derives historically from

360-571: Is another hybrid of garden origin, between A. arborea and A. laevis . The cultivar 'La Paloma' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . A taxon called Amelanchier lamarckii (or A. x lamarckii ) is very widely cultivated and naturalized in Europe, where it was introduced in the 17th century. It is apomictic , breeding true from seed, and probably of hybrid origin, perhaps descending from

405-525: Is extinct. The tribe is spread across several locations in Shasta County and Modoc County : The tribe also owns trust lands in Lake County, California , Lassen , Mendocino , Modoc, and Shasta Counties. The tribe conducts business from Burney, California . They were officially recognized as a tribe in 1976 and ratified their constitution in 1987. Each of the eleven bands is represented in

450-633: Is gray or less often brown, and in tree species smooth or fissuring when older. The leaves are deciduous, cauline, alternate, simple, lanceolate to elliptic to orbiculate, 0.5–10 x 0.5–5.5 cm, thin to coriaceous, with surfaces above glabrous or densely tomentose at flowering, and glabrous or more or less hairy beneath at maturity. The inflorescences are terminal, with 1–20 flowers, erect or drooping, either in clusters of one to four flowers, or in racemes with 4–20 flowers. The flowers have five white (rarely somewhat pink, yellow, or streaked with red), linear to orbiculate petals, 2.6–25 mm long, with

495-552: Is harvested commercially. One version of the Native American food pemmican was flavored by serviceberry fruits in combination with minced dried meat and fat. The wood is brown, hard, close-grained, and heavy. The heartwood is reddish-brown, and the sapwood is lighter in color. It can be used for tool handles and fishing rods. Native Americans used it for arrow shafts. Members of the Pit River Tribe would use

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540-413: Is named after the berry via a Cree term describing the sweet fruit which was wild-harvested for food by Aboriginal people and early settlers of western Canada. The various species of Amelanchier grow to 0.2–20 m (7.9 in – 65 ft 7.4 in) tall; some are small trees, some are multistemmed, clump-forming shrubs, and yet others form extensive low shrubby patches ( clones ). The bark

585-618: Is now called Shasta County, as well as throughout the West. Some continue to hunt and gather in their traditional places, and pray at their sacred sites throughout their homeland. They are a federally recognized tribe (headquarters located in Burney, CA) with a tribal council that includes representation of each of the eleven bands making up the Pit River Nation. The tribe operates several "Rancheria" and allotment "satellite" reservations,

630-584: Is safe to eat raw, possessing a mild sweetness strongly accented by the almond-like flavour of the seeds. Selections from Amelanchier alnifolia have been chosen for fruit production, with several named cultivars . Other cultivars appear to be derived from hybridization between A. alnifolia and A. stolonifera . Propagation is by seed, divisions, and grafting. Serviceberries graft so readily that grafts onto other genera, such as Crataegus and Sorbus , are often successful. The fruit can be harvested for pies, muffins, jams, and wine. The saskatoon berry

675-581: Is the indigenous language spoken by the Pit River people in the northeast corner of present-day California . The term Achumawi is an anglicization of the name of the Fall River band, ajúmmááwí , from ajúmmá "river". Originally there were nine bands, with dialect differences primarily between upriver (Atwamwi, Astariwawi; Kosalektawi, Hammawi, Hewisedawi dialects) and downriver (Madesiwi, Itsatawi, Ilmawi, and Achumawi (proper) dialects), demarcated by

720-797: The Big Valley mountains east of the Fall River valley. Together, Achumawi and Atsugewi are said to comprise the Palaihnihan language family separate from the adjacent and related Shastan family. The basis of this grouping is weakened by poor quality of data. David Olmsted's data dictionary depends almost entirely upon de Angulo, and carelessly includes Pomo vocabulary from a manuscript in which he (de Angulo) set out to demonstrate that Achumawi and Pomo are not related. William Bright and Shirley Silver questioned Olmsted's results and methods of reconstruction. Kroeber (1925:279) acknowledged that there would have been almost as much justification for separating Atsugewi from Achomawi and erecting it into

765-772: The Canadian prairie provinces which are subjected to severe winter cold of −60 °C (−76 °F), indicating the hardiness of the plant having a lifespan up to 50 years. Species accepted by the Plants of the World Online as of As of April 2023 : Since classifications have varied greatly over the past century, species names are often used interchangeably in the nursery trade. Several natural or horticultural hybrids also exist, and many A. arborea and A. canadensis plants that are offered for sale are actually hybrids, or entirely different species. A . × grandiflora

810-599: The ejective glottalized stops of neighboring languages, but more lenis , that is, not "popped" unless an unusual effort is made at articulating the distinction. The language has a 5-vowel system /i e a o u/. Two degrees of length are contrastive for both vowels and consonants. Long vowels are typically more peripheral and short vowels more centralized, phonetically [ɪ ɛ ʌ ə ʊ]. The mid vowels /e o/ are probably of secondary origin historically, as in Yana and Atsugewi . A short centralized vowel [ə ɨ] appears epenthetically between

855-548: The "Wintoon War" and the "Pit River War"... Here is one account of some of those ruthless attacks: "War was declared on the Indians in 1858. General William Kibbe and Captain I. G. Messec led military and civilian soldiers against the Indians from Trinity County all the way to the Fall River Valley. These soldiers were known as Kibbe's Guards and were ruthless, efficient Indian killers." Many Indians surrendered under

900-432: The Achumawi language is extinct. Out of an estimated 1500 Achumawi people remaining in northeastern California, perhaps ten spoke the language in 1991, with only eight in 2000. The last speaker died in 2013. As of 2013, a mobile app was planned for the language. Louise Davis, who lives in northern California, is almost tearful when she describes hearing people using the language of her Pit River tribe in conversation for

945-482: The Pit River region were thriving. The eleven bands in the region had similarities and differences in their language and ways. Some downriver bands lived in simple pit houses in small familial villages along Achoma (aka, the Pit River). They led a somewhat nomadic life, following opportunities to harvest foods from the rich resources of this valley, and ready to move to higher ground when the creeks and rivers flooded in

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990-631: The Pitt River tribe claimed almost one million acres of land that was then held by Pacific Gas & Electric Co, Southern Pacific Railroad, the Hearst Corporation, the Los Angeles Times, and four other companies. However, despite the judge presiding over the case agreeing that the Pit River tribe had not received justice and that the loss of land was wrong, rejected the case. Today, the Pit River people continue to live in what

1035-544: The consonants of certain prefixes, as in lhúpta "let's go!". Vowel length assimilates the next successive laryngeal state, that is, the second mora of a long vowel is devoiced before a plain or aspirated consonant ( preaspiration ) and word finally before silence, and is laryngealized before a laryngealized consonant. In upriver dialects vowels and plain stops are more fully voiced. In downriver dialects, utterance-final syllables may be devoiced or whispered, especially under interrogative intonation. A light syllable consists of

1080-479: The environment. The emigrants often had no respect for the delicate balance of nature, grazing their cattle and horses in prime hunting and gathering areas. A steady flow of emigrants arrived determined to occupy Pit River land and began the process of confiscating and fencing off the land. 1850s - European-American immigrant expansion interest and activity in Pit River region began. USA government, military forces, and settlers invaded, attacked, displaced, and killed

1125-590: The first time. It happened years ago when an older man from another part of the state met up with her grandmother. It was such a powerful, emotional experience that Davis is driven to use flashcards at home with her children and do whatever it takes to preserve the language. “You can say things in our language that you can’t say in English,” she said. Testing out a language app in February [2013], she said she couldn’t wait to see it being used among young people in

1170-554: The general welfare of our people and our descendants, protecting the rights of the Tribe and of our members, and preserving our land base, culture and identity, ..." While the Pit River group originally filed a separate land claims, after the Indian Claims Commission was created in 1946, the Pit River tribe was encouraged in 1963 to participate in the larger claims—Indians of California vs U. S. – but ultimately there

1215-539: The majority of Pit River Indians, with no treaties or compensation made for land seized. Regionally (intensifying in the mid 1850s), the European invaders ruthlessly and tragically destroyed most of the Pit River natives, and their way of life. The Pit Rivers (and virtually all California indigenous bands) were repeatedly abused, killed, and brutally massacred, as the invaders raided village after village in countless incidents, including some more well-known battles, such as

1260-542: The once vast and diverse forests in the area have been destroyed by clear-cutting and other industrial logging practices and replaced by tree farms. The arrival of European-American settlers and the occupation of the Pit River territories disrupted the safety of the Pit River people and their traditional food supply. The Pit River people never signed a treaty with the United States or the State of California; their land

1305-494: The oral tradition. The Pit River area was also impacted by economic factors. Government timber land went on sale in 1878, and allowed the purchase of up to 160 acres at $ 2.50 an acre. Outlying areas were victim to a speculative boom as a result, and large tracts of land passed into private hands. The area was subsequently heavily logged. The over-harvesting of timber in Big Bend region remains an ecological problem today. Most of

1350-524: The petals in one species ( A. nantucketensis ) often andropetalous (bearing apical microsporangia adaxially). The flowers appear in early spring, "when the shad run" according to North-American tradition (leading to names such as "shadbush"). The fruit is a berry-like pome , red to purple to nearly black at maturity, 5–15 mm diameter, insipid to delectably sweet, maturing in summer. Amelanchier plants are valued horticulturally, and their fruits are important to wildlife. Some orchards are cultivated in

1395-434: The rainy season. Archaeological evidence and some information collected by ethnographers in the early 1900s gives only minimal details of the thriving culture and communities that existed in the vast Pit River territory. Pit River artists and craftspeople apparently used both basalt and much obsidian from Glass Mountain to make tools and weapons. Obsidian arrowheads and obsidian flakes from tool-making have been found all over

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1440-446: The range in number of species recognized in the genus, from 6 to 33, in two recent publications. A major source of complexity comes from the occurrence of hybridization , polyploidy , and apomixis (asexual seed production), making species difficult to characterize and identify. A pome fruit , the berries are commonly consumed by wildlife and picked by humans for uses in baked goods. The Canadian city of Saskatoon , Saskatchewan

1485-820: The rose family ( Rosaceae ). Amelanchier is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere , growing primarily in early successional habitats . It is most diverse taxonomically in North America , especially in the northeastern United States and adjacent southeastern Canada , and at least one species is native to every U.S. state except Hawaii and to every Canadian province and territory. Two species also occur in Asia , and one in Europe . The taxonomic classification of shadbushes has long perplexed botanists, horticulturalists, and others, as suggested by

1530-561: The similarity of the fruit to the related European Sorbus . Juneberry refers to the fruits of certain species becoming ripe in June. The name saskatoon originated from a Cree noun misâskwatômina ( misāskwatōmina , misaaskwatoomina ) for Amelanchier alnifolia . The city of Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , is named after this plant. Shadberry refers to the shad runs in certain New England streams, which generally took place about when

1575-535: The surrounding plains, hills, mountains, and valleys. The people utilized the natural resources of their land to the fullest. In addition to harvesting deer, salmon, trout, rabbit, birds, and other small mammals, they often moved around their territory and gathered acorns, roots, herbs, and fruits, as each came into their season. Before the European-American immigration, the Native Americans of

1620-579: The threat of death or starvation, others were captured, untold numbers were killed, and their villages and food supplies were destroyed in the battles. In 1859, 700 captured Pit River Indians were forcibly taken to the Round Valley Reservation in Mendocino County for internment. The number of soldiers reported killed in the attacks varies; one account mentions 25, while another mentions 90. The main war ended in 1859. Although

1665-745: The trees bloomed. Amelanchier plants are preferred browse for deer and rabbits, and heavy browsing pressure can suppress natural regeneration. Caterpillars of such Lepidoptera as brimstone moth , brown-tail , grey dagger , mottled umber , rough prominent , the satellite , winter moth , and the red-spotted purple and the white admiral (both Limenitis arthemis ), as well as various other herbivorous insects feed on Amelanchier. Many insects and diseases that attack orchard trees also affect this genus, in particular trunk borers and Gymnosporangium rust. In years when late flowers of Amelanchier overlap those of wild roses and brambles , bees may spread bacterial fireblight . The fruit of several species

1710-409: The tribal council. In August 1964, a Constitution was formally adopted by the Pit River Tribe. The Preamble states: "... for the purpose of securing our Rights and Powers inherent in our Sovereign status as reinforced by the laws of the United States, developing and protecting Pit River (Ajumawi - Atsugewi) ancestral lands and all other resources, preserving peace and order in our community, promoting

1755-401: The tribe. Amelanchier About 20; see text Amelanchier ( / æ m ə ˈ l æ n ʃ ɪər / am-ə- LAN -sheer ), also known as shadbush , shadwood or shadblow , serviceberry or sarvisberry (or just sarvis ), juneberry , saskatoon , sugarplum , wild-plum or chuckley pear , is a genus of about 20 species of deciduous -leaved shrubs and small trees in

1800-430: The valley from the river banks to the hillsides and high in mountain hunting camp areas. 1827-1830s - European-American/Canadian fur trappers and explorers began passing through the Pit River area 1830s - Many Pit River natives died from imported disease epidemics. 1848 - California became part of U.S.A. through Treaty of Hidalgo with Mexico (in 1850 California became a state). 1849- Gold Rush begins, bringing

1845-523: The vast majority of Pit River Indians had been killed or forcibly moved out of the area, some remained, hidden away, and over 500 of those who were sent away eventually returned to their homeland, only to find white settlers taking over more and more property. By 1868, the US Army under General George Crook took control of many upriver Achoma areas. Many stories of brutal massacres and senseless racist killings of Pit River people have been handed down through

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1890-590: The voiceless-released first member of a consonant cluster, as in the neighboring and possibly related Yana language . This is seen morphophonemically in e.g. it "I, me", itʰˑú "my, mine". The plain-aspirated distinction is neutralized and realized with voiceless release in syllable-final position and before another consonant; the aspirates are much more fortis than this voiceless release. Syllable-initial plain stops are voiceless (without voiceless release) after long vowel or when geminate (long), and voiced elsewhere. The laryngealized stops are similar in articulation to

1935-464: The wood to create a sort of body armor, crafting it into a heavy robe or overcoat and corset armor worn during fighting. Several species are very popular ornamental shrubs , grown for their flowers, bark, and fall color. All need similar conditions to grow well, requiring good drainage, air circulation (to discourage leaf diseases), watering during drought, and soil appropriate for the species. George Washington planted specimens of Amelanchier on

1980-457: Was disharmony within the tribe and they rejected their monetary award. Overview of Some Prehistoric and Historic Events and Periods: Approximately 200 AD: New technology, the bow and arrow, is introduced into the Pit River area. Pre-1800 - Pit River bands of indigenous natives were living in abundance for thousands of years. For thousands of years, numerous indigenous villages were situated around and along Achoma (the Pit River) and out onto

2025-449: Was simply illegally confiscated. Many "Pit Rivers" were displaced against their will, and some were murdered for their land. Some returned or resettled nearby when they could, but countless people were cut off from their extended families and their traditional food sources. Into the 1900s, many Pit River people survived in poverty and some were hired out as ranch hands, mill workers, forestry workers, and other forms of manual labor. In 1974,

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