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206-709: The Pioneer Valley is the colloquial and promotional name for the portion of the Connecticut River Valley that is in Massachusetts in the United States. It is generally taken to comprise the three counties of Hampden , Hampshire , and Franklin . The lower Pioneer Valley corresponds to the Springfield, Massachusetts metropolitan area , the region's urban center, and the seat of Hampden County . The upper Pioneer Valley region includes

412-630: A bolide impact, for which an impact crater containing Manicouagan Reservoir in Quebec , Canada , has been singled out. However, the Manicouagan impact melt has been dated to 214±1 Mya. The date of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary has also been more accurately fixed recently, at 201.4 Mya. Both dates are gaining accuracy by using more accurate forms of radiometric dating, in particular the decay of uranium to lead in zircons formed at time of

618-626: A cosmopolitan distribution . Coelacanths show their highest post- Devonian diversity in the Early Triassic . Ray-finned fishes (actinopterygians) went through a remarkable diversification in the beginning of the Triassic, leading to peak diversity during the Middle Triassic; however, the pattern of this diversification is still not well understood due to a taphonomic megabias . The first stem-group teleosts appeared during

824-643: A 1635 scouting party commissioned by William Pynchon to found a city on the river's most advantageous site for commerce and agriculture. Pynchon's Massachusetts scouts located the Pocomtuc village of Agawam, where the Bay Path trade route crossed the Connecticut River at two of its major tributaries—the Chicopee River to the east and Westfield River to the west—and just north of Enfield Falls,

1030-525: A campaign of water conservation. Demand was reduced to sustainable levels by 1989, reaching approximately a 25% margin of safety by 2009. The Connecticut River is the largest river ecosystem in New England. Its watershed spans Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, small portions of Maine, and the Canadian province of Quebec. The Connecticut River rises from Fourth Connecticut Lake ,

1236-524: A center of wildlife and recreation. Starting about 1865, the river was used for massive logging drives from Third Connecticut Lake to initially water powered sawmills near Enfield Falls. Trees cut adjacent to tributary streams including Perry Stream and Indian Stream in Pittsburg, New Hampshire , Halls Stream on the Quebec –New Hampshire border, Simms Stream , the Mohawk River , and

1442-555: A chain of mountain ranges stretching from Turkey to Malaysia . Pangaea was fractured by widespread faulting and rift basins during the Triassic—especially late in that period—but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break-up of Pangaea, which separated eastern North America from Morocco , are of Late Triassic age; in the United States , these thick sediments comprise

1648-885: A diversity of colonial organisms including bryozoa . Freshwater sponges the size of dinner plates have been found by scuba divers at depths of more than 130 feet (40 m), thought to be the deepest location of the river, around the French King Bridge in Erving, Massachusetts. Mussels, eels, and northern pike were also observed there. There are several species of anadromous and catadromous fish, including brook trout , winter flounder , blueback herring , alewife , rainbow trout , large brown trout , American shad ( Alosa sapidissima ), hickory shad , smallmouth bass , Atlantic sturgeon , striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ), American eel , sea lamprey , and endangered shortnose sturgeon and dwarf wedgemussels. Additionally,

1854-474: A few exposures in the west. During the Triassic peneplains are thought to have formed in what is now Norway and southern Sweden. Remnants of this peneplain can be traced as a tilted summit accordance in the Swedish West Coast . In northern Norway Triassic peneplains may have been buried in sediments to be then re-exposed as coastal plains called strandflats . Dating of illite clay from

2060-471: A long beak-like snout), and Shringasaurus (a horned herbivore which reached a body length of 3–4 metres (9.8–13.1 ft)). One group of archosauromorphs, the archosauriforms , were distinguished by their active predatory lifestyle, with serrated teeth and upright limb postures. Archosauriforms were diverse in the Triassic, including various terrestrial and semiaquatic predators of all shapes and sizes. The large-headed and robust erythrosuchids were among

2266-585: A new wave of Eastern European immigration, particularly from Poland . The new people influenced Deerfield's demographics and culture. They were mostly Catholic peasants , who built their own churches and first worked as laborers, forming a community later known as Old Polonia. Later twentieth-century immigrants from Poland tended to be more educated, but settled in the larger cities. Immigrants in smaller communities followed different paths, and their descendants often moved to cities for more opportunities. Pocumtuck Indians first settled and originally inhabited

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2472-617: A pseudosuchian. Pseudosuchians were far more ecologically dominant in the Triassic, including large herbivores (such as aetosaurs ), large carnivores (" rauisuchians "), and the first crocodylomorphs (" sphenosuchians "). Aetosaurs were heavily-armored reptiles that were common during the last 30 million years of the Late Triassic until they died out at the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. Most aetosaurs were herbivorous and fed on low-growing plants, but some may have eaten meat. " rauisuchians " (formally known as paracrocodylomorphs ) were

2678-485: A robust and active LGBT nightlife – especially Northampton for lesbians, and Springfield for gay men. The college towns of Amherst and South Hadley also feature significant LGBT populations. Native American history in the Pioneer Valley stretches back thousands of years; its recorded history begins in 1635, when Roxbury magistrate William Pynchon commissioned land scouts John Cable and John Woodcock to look for

2884-731: A series of slow-flowing basins from Lake Francis Dam in Pittsburg, New Hampshire, to the Holyoke Dam at South Hadley Falls in Massachusetts. Among the most extensively dammed rivers in the United States, the Connecticut may soon flow at a more natural pace, according to scientists at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, who have devised a computer that – "in an effort to balance human and natural needs" – coordinates

3090-458: A short period of time, becoming extinct about 220 million years ago. They were exceptionally abundant in the middle of the Triassic, as the primary large herbivores in many Carnian-age ecosystems. They sheared plants with premaxillary beaks and plates along the upper jaw with multiple rows of teeth. Allokotosaurs were iguana-like reptiles, including Trilophosaurus (a common Late Triassic reptile with three-crowned teeth), Teraterpeton (which had

3296-565: A small pond 300 yards (270 m) south of the Canada–United States border in the town of Pittsburg, New Hampshire , at an elevation of 2,670 feet (810 m) above sea level. It flows through the remaining Connecticut Lakes and Lake Francis for 14 miles (23 km), all within the town of Pittsburg, and then widens as it delineates 255 miles (410 km) of the border between New Hampshire and Vermont. The river drops more than 2,480 feet (760 m) in elevation as it winds south to

3502-567: A specialized subgroup of cynodonts, appeared during the Triassic and would survive the extinction event, allowing them to radiate during the Jurassic. Amphibians were primarily represented by the temnospondyls , giant aquatic predators that had survived the end-Permian extinction and saw a new burst of diversification in the Triassic, before going extinct by the end; however, early crown-group lissamphibians (including stem-group frogs , salamanders and caecilians ) also became more common during

3708-426: A spot just north of Enfield Falls , the first spot on the Connecticut River where all travelers must stop to negotiate a waterfall, 32 feet (9.8 m) in height, and then transship their cargoes from ocean-going vessels to smaller shallops. Pynchon's party purchased land on both sides of Connecticut River from 18 tribesman who lived at a palisade fort at the current site of Springfield's Longhill Street. The price paid

3914-449: A strandflat of Bømlo , southern Norway, have shown that landscape there became weathered in Late Triassic times ( c. 210 million years ago) with the landscape likely also being shaped during that time. Eustatic sea level in the Triassic was consistently low compared to the other geological periods. The beginning of the Triassic was around present sea level, rising to about 10–20 metres (33–66 ft) above present-day sea level during

4120-585: A supercontinent has less shoreline compared to a series of smaller continents, Triassic marine deposits are relatively uncommon on a global scale. A major exception is in Western Europe , where the Triassic was first studied. The northeastern margin of Gondwana was a stable passive margin along the Neo-Tethys Ocean, and marine sediments have been preserved in parts of northern India and Arabia . In North America , marine deposits are limited to

4326-422: A surprise attack on Peskeompskut, in present-day Montague , then a traditional native gathering place. They killed 200 natives, mostly women and children. When the men of the tribe returned, they routed Turner, who died of a mortal wound at Green River. On February 29, 1704, during Queen Anne's War , joint French and Indian forces attacked the town in what has become known as the 1704 Raid on Deerfield . Under

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4532-482: A toll on Connecticut Colony ships entering Boston Harbor . Connecticut was largely dependent on sea trade with Boston and therefore permanently dropped its tax on Springfield, but Springfield allied with Boston nonetheless, drawing the first state border across the Connecticut River. The Fort at Number 4 in Charlestown, New Hampshire , was the northernmost British colonial presence on the Connecticut River until

4738-468: Is a recent study of North American faunas. In the Petrified Forest of northeast Arizona there is a unique sequence of late Carnian-early Norian terrestrial sediments. An analysis in 2002 found no significant change in the paleoenvironment. Phytosaurs , the most common fossils there, experienced a change-over only at the genus level, and the number of species remained the same. Some aetosaurs ,

4944-622: Is also diverse, featuring Massachusetts's wealthiest Fortune 100 company, MassMutual Insurance, as well as numerous universities and hospitals. Springfield features thousands of Victorian era Painted Lady mansions (like San Francisco's), e.g., in the McKnight Historic District . In addition to the Connecticut River, Springfield features Watershops Pond , Porter Lake, and the Mill River . Less than two miles south of Springfield, Six Flags New England amusement park

5150-769: Is an important conduit of many anadromous fish, such as American shad , lamprey , and Atlantic salmon . American eels are also present, as are predators of these migratory fish including striped bass . Shad run as far north as Holyoke, Massachusetts where they are lifted over the Holyoke Dam by a fish elevator. This station publishes annual statistics of the run, and has recorded an occasional salmon. They pass an additional elevator in Turners Falls, Massachusetts , and make it at least as far as Bellows Falls, Vermont . Harbor seals have been recorded traveling upriver as far north as Holyoke in pursuit of migratory fish; it

5356-618: Is basketball, currently the world's 2nd most popular sport. That said, the "City of Progress" produced three other innovations, not nearly as well publicized, but which have proven to have proven to be just as significant, if not more so, to the world at large. In 1892–93, the first, functional, American gasoline-powered car was produced at the Stacy Building in Springfield by the Duryea Brothers . The Duryea's car also won

5562-453: Is home to a particularly large number of Vietnamese immigrants. Also, as of 2011, Russian and Ukrainian immigrants are increasing in Springfield, West Springfield, Westfield, and other communities. According to the 2010 census, the Pioneer Valley features one of the highest per capita lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) populations in the United States. Indeed, according to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2010 census statistics, Springfield

5768-594: Is home to some of the northeastern United States' most productive farmland, as well as the Hartford–Springfield Knowledge Corridor , a metropolitan region of approximately two million people surrounding Springfield, Massachusetts , and Hartford, Connecticut . The word "Connecticut" is a corruption of the Mohegan word quinetucket and Nipmuc word kwinitekw , which mean "beside the long, tidal river". The word came into English usage during

5974-861: Is known the world over for rubber production. In 1868, inventor Margaret E. Knight invented a machine for folding and gluing flat-bottomed paper bags. Connecticut River Valley The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for 406 miles (653 km) through four states. It rises 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. border with Quebec , Canada , and discharges at Long Island Sound . Its watershed encompasses 11,260 square miles (29,200 km ), covering parts of five U.S. states and one Canadian province, via 148 tributaries, 38 of which are major rivers. It produces 70% of Long Island Sound's fresh water, discharging at 18,400 cubic feet (520 m ) per second. The Connecticut River Valley

6180-508: Is likely a paraphyletic group rather than a true clade. Tanystropheids were a family of protorosaurs which elevated their neck size to extremes, with the largest genus Tanystropheus having a neck longer than its body. The protorosaur family Sharovipterygidae used their elongated hindlimbs for gliding. Other archosauromorphs, such as rhynchosaurs and allokotosaurs , were mostly stocky-bodied herbivores with specialized jaw structures. Rhynchosaurs, barrel-gutted herbivores, thrived for only

6386-541: Is located in suburban Agawam ; and one mile west of Springfield, The Big E —the collective state fairgrounds of all six New England States—is located in West Springfield . North of Springfield, the U.S. Westover Air Force Base is located in the resurgent, former industrial city of Chicopee . The City of Chicopee features the confluence of the fast-moving Chicopee River and the meandering Connecticut River . The Chicopee River, although only 18.0 miles long, has

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6592-469: Is no evidence of glaciation at or near either pole; in fact, the polar regions were apparently moist and temperate , providing a climate suitable for forests and vertebrates, including reptiles. Pangaea's large size limited the moderating effect of the global ocean; its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers and cold winters. The strong contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and

6798-629: Is notably rich, beginning with the 1675 Attack on Springfield during King Philip's War . Later, events such as George Washington 's and Henry Knox 's founding of the Springfield Armory atop a bluff in the town made Springfield one of the U.S. military's most important sites for centuries. Shays's Rebellion , which led directly to the U.S. Constitution , occurred at the Armory ten years after Washington's founding of it—and also forced him to come out of retirement. As regards literary works,

7004-693: Is now inundated by the impoundments of dams built after this time. The Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the American Revolutionary War created a new international border between New Hampshire and the Province of Canada at "northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut". Several streams fit this description, and thus a boundary dispute led to the short-lived Indian Stream Republic , which existed from 1832 to 1835. The broad, fertile Connecticut River Valley attracted agricultural settlers and colonial traders to Hartford, Springfield, and

7210-652: Is one of the few major rivers in the United States without a major city at its mouth because of this obstacle. Major cities on the Connecticut River are Hartford and Springfield, which lie 45 and 69 miles (70 and 110 km) upriver respectively. The Nature Conservancy named the Connecticut River's tidelands one of the Western Hemisphere's "40 Last Great Places", while the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands listed its estuary and tidal wetlands as one of 1,759 wetlands of international importance. In 1997,

7416-405: Is possible that they ranged farther upstream before the dam was built. In the southernmost portions in southern Connecticut near Long Island Sound, dolphins are spotted on occasion. There are 12 species of freshwater mussels. Eleven of them occur in the mainstem of the Connecticut; the brook floater is found only in small streams and rivers. Species diversity is higher in the southern part of

7622-460: Is superimposed by 22 sea level drop events widespread in the geologic record, mostly of minor (less than 25-metre (82 ft)) and medium (25–75-metre (82–246 ft)) magnitudes. A lack of evidence for Triassic continental ice sheets suggest that glacial eustasy is unlikely to be the cause of these changes. The Triassic continental interior climate was generally hot and dry, so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites . There

7828-611: Is supposed that he came to Massachusetts from Northampton, England. The Pocumtuc confederacy occupied the Connecticut River Valley, from what is now southern Vermont and New Hampshire into northern Connecticut. The Pocumtuc tribes were Algonquian , and traditionally allied with the Mahican confederacy to the west. By 1606, an ongoing struggle between the Mahican and Iroquois confederacies led to direct attacks on

8034-642: Is the first author to have his work " banned in Boston ". Standing to lose all of his land-holdings—the largest in the Connecticut River Valley—William Pynchon transferred ownership to his son, John, and then, in 1652, moved back to England with his friend, the Reverend Moxon. William's son, John Pynchon, and his brother-in-law, Elizur Holyoke , quickly took on the settlement's leadership roles. They began moving Springfield away from

8240-549: Is the most rural county in Massachusetts and thus reminiscent of southern Vermont , which it borders. Greenfield is its largest municipality, a small city frequently used as a gateway to the region's many outdoor pursuits. The county offers downhill skiing at resorts such as Berkshire East , white-water rafting, zip-lining, hiking, kayaking, and other outdoor pursuits. In addition, Franklin County contains many rustic, former mill towns. Many of these have become quaint and scenic since

8446-509: Is the town's principal industry. Historic Deerfield, a National Historic Landmark district with eleven house museums and a regional museum and visitors' center, and the Yankee Candle Company are major attractions. An account of the town's early history was written by local historian George Sheldon and published in the late nineteenth century. By this time, South Deerfield and other New England villages were already absorbing

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8652-463: Is usually divided into Early , Middle , and Late Triassic Epochs , and the corresponding rocks are referred to as Lower, Middle, or Upper Triassic. The faunal stages from the youngest to oldest are: During the Triassic, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single supercontinent , Pangaea ( lit.   ' entire land ' ). This supercontinent was more-or-less centered on

8858-486: Is well known for Connecticut shade tobacco . The Connecticut River is influenced by the tides as far north as Enfield Rapids in Windsor Locks, Connecticut , approximately 58 miles (93 km) north of the river's mouth. Two million residents live in the densely populated Hartford-Springfield region, which stretches roughly between the college towns of Amherst, Massachusetts, and Middletown, Connecticut. Hartford,

9064-625: The 2010 census , per capita, Northampton has the highest concentration of lesbians in the United States, and perhaps the world. Hampshire County is certainly the "Valley full o' Pioneer ... in the sleepy west of the woody east", of which the Pixies sang in the song " U-Mass ". Springfield's cultural contributions to the United States and world at large have been so numerous that here, only brief descriptions of very important national and international cultural milestones will be mentioned. As of 2011, Springfield's most famous cultural contribution worldwide

9270-516: The Basketball Hall of Fame on Springfield's riverfront. The region features alpine skiing at resorts such as Berkshire East and seasonal festivals that draw millions of visitors, such as The Big E —all six New England states' collective, annual state fair in West Springfield —and Bright Nights at Springfield's Forest Park —an elaborate, high-tech lighting display during the holiday season. The Pioneer Valley includes approximately half of

9476-557: The CCC , contributed aid and manpower to the effort. Flooding of roads isolated the city for a time. When the water receded, it left behind silt-caused mud which in places was 3 feet (1 m) thick; the recovery effort in Springfield, at the height of the American Great Depression , took approximately a decade. Overall, the flood caused 171 deaths and US$ 500 million (US$ 11,000,000,000 with inflation ) in damages. Across

9682-578: The Carnian (early part of the Late Triassic), some advanced cynodonts gave rise to the first mammals . During the Triassic, archosaurs displaced therapsids as the largest and most ecologically prolific terrestrial amniotes. This "Triassic Takeover" may have contributed to the evolution of mammals by forcing the surviving therapsids and their mammaliaform successors to live as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores . Nocturnal life may have forced

9888-457: The Connecticut River Valley 's best site for both conducting trade and farming. The first 16 years of the history of the European settlement of the Pioneer Valley, before 1652, when Northampton, Massachusetts , was established, are coterminous with the history of Springfield, Massachusetts, as it was Pioneer Valley's only settlement. From 1633 to 1635, there had been three English settlements in

10094-507: The Dr. Seuss Memorial , Augustus Saint Gaudens's outdoor masterpiece, The Puritan , and five world-class art, science, and history museums at the Quadrangle . Forest Park , a city park of 745 acres (301 ha) designed following the principles of Frederick Law Olmsted , who is most famous for designing New York City's Central Park, is comparably diverse and ornate. The city's economic base

10300-614: The Jurassic , when the temnospondyls had become very rare. Most of the Reptiliomorpha , stem-amniotes that gave rise to the amniotes, disappeared in the Triassic, but two water-dwelling groups survived: Embolomeri that only survived into the early part of the period, and the Chroniosuchia , which survived until the end of the Triassic. The Permian–Triassic extinction devastated terrestrial life. Biodiversity rebounded as

10506-568: The Lake Lugano region of northern Italy and southern Switzerland , was in Middle Triassic times a lagoon behind reefs with an anoxic bottom layer, so there were no scavengers and little turbulence to disturb fossilization, a situation that can be compared to the better-known Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone lagerstätte . The remains of fish and various marine reptiles (including the common pachypleurosaur Neusticosaurus , and

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10712-676: The Mohawk , Mahican , and Iroquois tribes. The Pennacook tribe mediated many early disagreements between colonists and other Indian tribes, with a territory stretching roughly from the Massachusetts border with Vermont and New Hampshire, northward to the rise of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. The Western Abenaki ( Sokoki ) tribe lived in the Green Mountains region of Vermont but wintered as far south as

10918-617: The New Netherland colony. In 1623, Dutch traders constructed a fortified trading post at the site of Hartford, Connecticut , called the Fort Huys de Hoop ("Fort House of Hope"). Four separate Puritan -led groups also settled the fertile Connecticut River Valley, and they founded the two large cities that continue to dominate the Valley: Hartford (est. 1635) and Springfield (est. 1636). The first group of pioneers left

11124-658: The Newark Supergroup . Rift basins are also common in South America, Europe, and Africa. Terrestrial environments are particularly well-represented in the South Africa, Russia, central Europe, and the southwest United States. Terrestrial Triassic biostratigraphy is mostly based on terrestrial and freshwater tetrapods, as well as conchostracans ("clam shrimps"), a type of fast-breeding crustacean which lived in lakes and hypersaline environments. Because

11330-531: The Northfield, Massachusetts , area. The ( Sokoki ) tribe migrated to Odanak, Quebec following the epidemics and the wars with the settlers but returned to Vermont. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block became the first European to chart the Connecticut River, sailing as far north as Enfield Rapids . He called it the "Fresh River" and claimed it for the Netherlands as the northeastern border of

11536-761: The Nulhegan River basin in Essex County, Vermont , would be flushed into the main river by the release of water impounded behind splash dams . Several log drivers died trying to move logs through Perry Falls in Pittsburg. Teams of men would wait at Canaan, Vermont , to protect the bridges from log jams. Men guided logs through a 400-foot (120 m) drop along the length of Fifteen-Mile Falls (now submerged under Moore and Comerford reservoirs), and through Logan's Rips at Fitzdale, Mulligan's Lower Pitch, and Seven Islands. The White River from Vermont and Ammonoosuc River from New Hampshire brought more logs into

11742-474: The Olenekian and Anisian of Gondwana . Both kannemeyeriiform dicynodonts and gomphodont cynodonts remained important herbivores during much of the period. Therocephalians included both large predators ( Moschorhinus ) and herbivorous forms ( bauriids ) until their extinction midway through the period. Ecteniniid cynodonts played a role as large-sized, cursorial predators in the Late Triassic. During

11948-714: The Passumpsic , Ammonoosuc , White , Black , West , Ashuelot , Millers , Deerfield , Chicopee , Westfield , and Farmington rivers. The Swift River , a tributary of the Chicopee, has been dammed and largely replaced by the Quabbin Reservoir which provides water to the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority district in eastern Massachusetts, including Boston and its metropolitan area . Along its southern reaches,

12154-732: The Plymouth Colony in 1632 and ultimately founded the village of Matianuck (which became Windsor, Connecticut ) several miles north of the Dutch fort. A group left the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Watertown , seeking a site where they could practice their religion more freely. With this in mind, they founded Wethersfield, Connecticut , in 1633, several miles south of the Dutch fort at Hartford. In 1635, Reverend Thomas Hooker led settlers from Cambridge, Massachusetts , where he had feuded with Reverend John Cotton , to

12360-453: The Six Flags New England amusement park. The Connecticut's largest falls – South Hadley Falls – features a vertical drop of 58 feet (18 m). Lush green forests and agricultural hamlets dot this middle portion of the Connecticut River; however, the region is best known for its numerous college towns , such as Northampton, South Hadley , and Amherst , as well as the river's most populous city, Springfield. The city sits atop bluffs beside

12566-418: The Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests , The Nature Conservancy of New Hampshire, and others to raise around $ 42 million. A conservation easement over 146,000 acres (590 km ) of the property prohibits development of the land while allowing public access. The forest is managed by the Lyme Timber Company, and the conservation easement over the land ensures sustainable forest management of

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12772-438: The Trust for Public Land purchased 171,000 acres (690 km ) of land in New Hampshire from International Paper , allowing the Connecticut Lakes Headwaters Partnership Task Force to plan the future protection of the land. The property spans the towns of Pittsburg , Clarksville , and Stewartstown, New Hampshire , nearly 3 percent of the land in the state of New Hampshire. The Trust for Public Land worked in partnership with

12978-655: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has repopulated the river with another species of migratory fish, the Atlantic salmon , which for more than 200 years had been extinct from the river due to damming . Several fish ladders and fish elevators have been built to allow fish to resume their natural migration upriver each spring. Fresh and brackish water residents of the main branch and tributaries include common carp , white catfish , brown bullhead , fallfish , yellow perch , smallmouth bass , largemouth bass , northern pike , chain pickerel , bluegill , pumpkinseed sunfish , golden shiner , and rock bass . Much of

13184-432: The Wampanoag and the Massachusetts Bay colonists, eventually leading to the expanded Algonquian alliance which took part in King Philip's War . Northampton's territory would be enlarged beyond the original settlement, but later portions would be carved up into separate cities, towns, and municipalities. Southampton , for example, was incorporated in 1775, and included parts of the territories of modern Montgomery (which

13390-499: The Western Niantics , while maintaining an uneasy stand-off with their rivals the Mohegans . The Mattabesset (Tunxis) tribe takes its name from the place where its sachems ruled at the Connecticut River's Big Bend at Middletown, in a village sandwiched between the territories of the aggressive Pequots to the south and the more peaceable Mohegans to the north. The Mohegans dominated the region due north, where Hartford and its suburbs sit, particularly after allying themselves with

13596-421: The issuance of land grants by New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth beginning in the 1740s. New York protested these grants, and King George III decided in 1764 that the border between the provinces should be the western bank of the Connecticut River. Ethan Allen, the Green Mountain Boys , and other residents of the disputed area resisted attempts by New York to exercise authority there, which resulted in

13802-444: The lathe in Springfield, which would catalyze manufacturing developments now known the world over as interchangeable parts and the assembly line . In 1825, Blanchard also built the first American car, a "horseless carriage," which was powered by steam. In 1844, inventor Charles Goodyear perfected and patented his process for making vulcanized rubber in Springfield—as of 2011, as it has been for many years previous, Goodyear's name

14008-540: The surviving species repopulated empty terrain, but these were short-lived. Diverse communities with complex food-web structures took 30 million years to reestablish. Archosauromorph reptiles, which had already appeared and diversified to an extent in the Permian Period, exploded in diversity as an adaptive radiation in response to the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. By the Early Triassic, several major archosauromorph groups had appeared. Long-necked, lizard-like early archosauromorphs were known as protorosaurs , which

14214-412: The thecodonts ) disappeared, as did most of the large labyrinthodont amphibians, groups of small reptiles, and most synapsids. Some of the early, primitive dinosaurs also became extinct, but more adaptive ones survived to evolve into the Jurassic. Surviving plants that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world included modern conifers and cycadeoids. The cause of the Late Triassic extinction is uncertain. It

14420-437: The traversodont cynodonts—were much reduced in the northern half of Pangaea ( Laurasia ). These extinctions within the Triassic and at its end allowed the dinosaurs to expand into many niches that had become unoccupied. Dinosaurs became increasingly dominant, abundant and diverse, and remained that way for the next 150 million years. The true "Age of Dinosaurs" is during the following Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, rather than

14626-417: The Anisian to Ladinian of the Tethysian domain, and from the Carnian and Rhaetian of a larger area that includes also the Boreal domain (e.g., Svalbard Islands), the North American continent, the South China block and Argentina . The best-studied of such episodes of humid climate, and probably the most intense and widespread, was the Carnian Pluvial Event . The Early Triassic was the hottest portion of

14832-739: The Bay Path where the Connecticut River meets the western Westfield River and eastern Chicopee River . The Pocomtuc villagers at Agawam helped Puritan explorers settle this site and remained friendly with them for decades, unlike tribes farther north and south along the Connecticut River. The region stretching from Springfield north to the New Hampshire and Vermont state borders fostered many agricultural Pocomtuc and Nipmuc settlements, with its soil enhanced by sedimentary deposits. Occasionally, these villages endured invasions from more aggressive confederated tribes living in New York , such as

15038-460: The Carnian and include early sauropodomorphs and theropods. Most Triassic dinosaurs were small predators and only a few were common, such as Coelophysis , which was 1 to 2 metres (3.3 to 6.6 ft) long. Triassic sauropodomorphs primarily inhabited cooler regions of the world. The large predator Smok was most likely also an archosaur, but it is uncertain if it was a primitive dinosaur or

15244-740: The Colonists against the Pequots during the Pequot War of 1637. Their culture was similar to the Pequots, as they had split off from them and become their rivals some time prior to European exploration of the area. The agricultural Pocomtuc tribe lived in unfortified villages alongside the Connecticut River north of the Enfield Falls on the fertile stretch of hills and meadows surrounding Springfield, Massachusetts . The Pocomtuc village of Agawam eventually became Springfield, situated on

15450-499: The Connecticut Colony and New Netherland Colony to a point near Greenwich, Connecticut . The treaty allowed the Dutch to maintain their trading post at Fort Huys de Hoop, which they did until the 1664 British takeover of New Netherland. The Connecticut River Valley's central location, fertile soil, and abundant natural resources made it the target of centuries of border disputes, beginning with Springfield's defection from

15656-559: The Connecticut Colony and be annexed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. When the dust finally settled, William Pynchon was named magistrate of Agawam by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and, in honor of him, the settlement was renamed Springfield after the village of Springfield near Chelmsford , Essex in England, where Pynchon was born and raised. For decades, Springfield—which, at the time, included modern-day Westfield—was

15862-448: The Connecticut Colony in 1641, which brought the Massachusetts Bay Colony to the river. In 1640, Massachusetts Bay Colony asserted a claim to jurisdiction over lands surrounding the river; however, Springfield remained politically independent until tensions with the Connecticut Colony were exacerbated by a final confrontation later that year. Hartford kept a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River at Old Saybrook for protection against

16068-718: The Connecticut River Valley formed a shallow arm of the sea," leaving deposits that enriched the Pioneer Valley's inordinately fertile soil. Geologically interesting parts of the Valley are the basalt flows and dinosaur tracks in South Hadley and Holyoke, Massachusetts , a chain of basaltic traprock ridges known as Metacomet Ridge along the ancient tectonic rift including the Mount Holyoke and Mount Tom ranges, layers of rock deposit laid down by

16274-508: The Connecticut River Valley: Wethersfield, Connecticut ; Windsor, Connecticut ; and the best situated of the three (because of its two rivers), Hartford, Connecticut . Cable and Woodcock continued northward until they came upon a spot that they agreed was the best situated of them all: modern-day Springfield, Massachusetts . Springfield sits at a natural crossroads, at the confluence of four rivers: to

16480-766: The Connecticut River has carved a wide, fertile floodplain valley (known in Massachusetts as the Pioneer Valley), depositing rich silt and loam soils known internationally for their agricultural merit. Abundant riparian hardwood species include sycamores, cottonwood , basswood, willows, sassafras, box elder, black elder, osier dogwood and more. The river itself and its many tributaries are home to many typical New England freshwater species. These include dace , crawfish , hellgramites , freshwater mussels , typical frog species, snapping turtles , brook trout , freshwater sturgeon, catfish, walleye, chain pickerel and carp. Introduced species include stocked rainbow trout . The river

16686-435: The Connecticut River was designated one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers , which recognized its "distinctive natural, economic, agricultural, scenic, historic, cultural, and recreational qualities." In May 2012, the Connecticut River was designated America's first National Blueway in recognition of the restoration and preservation efforts on the river. The Connecticut River's flow is slowed by main stem dams, which create

16892-401: The Connecticut River, Greenfield developed into a trade center. It was designated county seat when Franklin County was created from Hampshire County in 1811. Falls provided water power for industry, and Greenfield grew into a prosperous mill town . Residents benefit from a rich cultural array of fine arts, performances and notable architecture in college towns and in Springfield. According to

17098-482: The Connecticut's confluence with two major tributaries, the Chicopee River to the east and Westfield River to the west. The region around the Connecticut River is known locally as the Pioneer Valley , and the name adorns many local civic organizations and local businesses. While the southern part of the valley in Massachusetts is heavily urbanized, the northern section is largely rural and the local agriculture

17304-599: The Connecticut. After the first major dam was built near Turners Falls, Massachusetts , thirteen additional dams have ended the Connecticut River's great anadromous fish runs. Salmon restoration efforts began in 1967, and fish ladders at a fish elevator at Hadley Falls have since enabled migrating fish to return to some of their former spawning grounds. In addition to dams, warm water discharges between 1978 and 1992 from Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant in Vernon, Vermont released water up to 105 °F (41 °C) degrees, with

17510-657: The Connecticut. A log boom was built between Wells River, Vermont , and Woodsville, New Hampshire , to hold the logs briefly and release them gradually to avoid jams in the Ox Bow. Men detailed to this work utilized Woodsville's saloons and red-light district . Some of the logs were destined for mills in Wilder and Bellows Falls, Vermont , while others were sluiced over the Bellows Falls dam. North Walpole, New Hampshire , contained twelve to eighteen saloons, patronized by

17716-399: The Connecticut. This resulted in an unsuccessful lawsuit by the state of Connecticut against the diversion of its riparian waters. Demand for drinking water in eastern Massachusetts passed the sustainable supply from the existing system in 1969. Diverting water from the Connecticut River was considered several times, but in 1986 the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority instead undertook

17922-627: The Early Triassic, forming small patches of reefs of modest extent compared to the great reef systems of Devonian or modern times. At the end of the Carnian, a reef crisis occurred in South China. Serpulids appeared in the Middle Triassic. Microconchids were abundant. The shelled cephalopods called ammonites recovered, diversifying from a single line that survived the Permian extinction. Bivalves began to rapidly diversify during

18128-402: The Early Triassic, while others (e.g. capitosaurs ) remained successful throughout the whole period, or only came to prominence in the Late Triassic (e.g. Plagiosaurus , metoposaurs ). The first Lissamphibians (modern amphibians) appear in the Triassic, with the progenitors of the first frogs already present by the Early Triassic. However, the group as a whole did not become common until

18334-562: The Early and Middle Triassic. Sea level rise accelerated in the Ladinian, culminating with a sea level up to 50 metres (164 ft) above present-day levels during the Carnian. Sea level began to decline in the Norian, reaching a low of 50 metres (164 ft) below present sea level during the mid-Rhaetian. Low global sea levels persisted into the earliest Jurassic. The long-term sea level trend

18540-585: The English colonists' weaknesses, and also wanting to keep market values steady. Leading citizens of (what would become) Hartford were furious with Pynchon for not purchasing any grain. With Windsor's and Wethersfield's consent, the three southerly settlements commissioned the famed Native American-conqueror Captain John Mason to travel to Springfield with "money in one hand and a sword in the other." On reaching (what would become) Springfield, Mason intimidated

18746-581: The Greenfield area. Native American artifacts found in the area have been dated as originating between 7,000 and 9,000 years BC. The Pocumtucks planted field crops and fished the rivers, but were wiped out as a tribe by the Mohawks in 1664. Thereafter, the newly unoccupied area - being the eastern terminus of the Mohawk Trail , a principal route for Native American trade traveling west into New York -

18952-403: The Jurassic. The Triassic was named in 1834 by Friedrich August von Alberti , after a succession of three distinct rock layers (Greek triás meaning 'triad') that are widespread in southern Germany : the lower Buntsandstein (colourful sandstone ) , the middle Muschelkalk (shell-bearing limestone ) and the upper Keuper (coloured clay ). On the geologic time scale , the Triassic

19158-613: The Jurassic. There were many types of marine reptiles. These included the Sauropterygia , which featured pachypleurosaurus and nothosaurs (both common during the Middle Triassic, especially in the Tethys region), placodonts , the earliest known herbivorous marine reptile Atopodentatus , and the first plesiosaurs . The first of the lizardlike Thalattosauria ( askeptosaurs ) and the highly successful ichthyopterygians , which appeared in Early Triassic seas, soon diversified. By

19364-655: The Latest Olenekian Cooling (LOC), from 248 to 247 Ma, temperatures cooled by about 6 °C. The Middle Triassic was cooler than the Early Triassic, with temperatures falling over most of the Anisian, with the exception of a warming spike in the latter portion of the stage. From 242 to 233 Ma, the Ladinian-Carnian Cooling (LCC) ensued. At the beginning of the Carnian, global temperatures continued to be relatively cool. The eruption of

19570-413: The Massachusetts Bay Colony. For decades, Springfield remained the Massachusetts Bay Colony's westernmost settlement, on the northern border of the Connecticut Colony. Of these settlements, Hartford and Springfield quickly emerged as powers. By 1654, however, the success of these English settlements rendered the Dutch position untenable on the Connecticut River. A treaty moved the boundary westward between

19776-486: The Middle Triassic, becoming highly abundant in the oceans. Aquatic insects rapidly diversified during the Middle Triassic, with this time interval representing a crucial diversification for Holometabola , the clade containing the majority of modern insect species. In the wake of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction event , the fish fauna was remarkably uniform, with many families and genera exhibiting

19982-618: The Middle Triassic, some ichthyopterygians were achieving very large body masses. Among other reptiles, the earliest turtles , like Proganochelys and Proterochersis , appeared during the Norian Age (Stage) of the Late Triassic Period. The Lepidosauromorpha , specifically the Sphenodontia , are first found in the fossil record of the earlier Carnian Age, though the earliest lepidosauromorphs likely occurred in

20188-568: The Pequots, Wampanoags , Mohegans, and the New Netherland Colony. After Springfield broke ties with the Colony, the remaining Connecticut settlements demanded that Springfield's ships pay tolls when passing the mouth of the river. The ships refused to pay this tax without representation at Connecticut's fort, but Hartford refused to grant it. In response, the Massachusetts Bay Colony solidified its friendship with Springfield by levying

20394-450: The Permian extinction, Archaeplastida (red and green algae) had been the major marine phytoplanktons since about 659–645 million years ago, when they replaced marine planktonic cyanobacteria , which first appeared about 800 million years ago, as the dominant phytoplankton in the oceans. In the Triassic, secondary endosymbiotic algae became the most important plankton. In marine environments , new modern types of corals appeared in

20600-475: The Permian. The Procolophonidae , the last surviving parareptiles , were an important group of small lizard-like herbivores. The drepanosaurs were a clade of unusual, chameleon-like arboreal reptiles with birdlike heads and specialised claws. Three therapsid groups survived into the Triassic: dicynodonts , therocephalians , and cynodonts . The cynodont Cynognathus was a characteristic top predator in

20806-566: The Pioneer Valley "is not an ordinary river channel; it is, in fact, a trough between two systems of mountains. To the west lie the worn-down remnants of the once lofty Berkshire Mountains; on the east, the yet more degraded ridges which constitute what we may call the Eastern Massachusetts set of mountain ridges. These rocks now form many sharp hills and mountains in the Valley. During the Triassic time, Massachusetts's portion of

21012-711: The Pioneer Valley by its lively college towns , such as Northampton and Amherst ; the resurgent city of Springfield ; its unspoiled nature, numerous parks, and recreational facilities, including New England's largest and most popular amusement park, Six Flags New England in Agawam ; its cultural and historical sites, such as the Emily Dickinson House in Amherst, the Springfield Armory National Historical Site, and

21218-439: The Pioneer Valley in general, is Bradley International Airport , which is located 12 miles south of Springfield in the town of Windsor Locks, Connecticut , land that formerly belonged to Springfield. Springfield is majority black, Latino and people of color. Currently, the Pioneer Valley's ethnic and racial diversity varies greatly from city to town. Predominantly British until the nineteenth century, and then European-American in

21424-591: The Pocumtuc by the Iroquoian Mohawk nation . The Mahican confederacy had been defeated by 1628, limiting Pocumtuc access to trade routes to the west. The area suffered a major smallpox epidemic in the 1630s, following the arrival of Dutch traders in the Hudson Valley and English settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the previous two decades. It was in this context that the land making up

21630-711: The Pocumtuck tribe by force, who in turn sought French protection from colonists in Canada. At the Battle of Bloody Brook on September 18, 1675, the dispossessed Indians destroyed a small force under the command of Captain Thomas Lathrop before being driven off by reinforcements. Colonial casualties numbered about sixty. In retaliation, at dawn on May 19, 1676, Captain William Turner led an army of settlers in

21836-408: The Triassic (teleosts are by far the most diverse group of fish today). Predatory actinopterygians such as saurichthyids and birgeriids , some of which grew over 1.2 m (3.9 ft) in length, appeared in the Early Triassic and became widespread and successful during the period as a whole. Lakes and rivers were populated by lungfish (Dipnoi), such as Ceratodus , which are mainly known from

22042-497: The Triassic and survived the extinction event. The earliest known neopterygian fish, including early holosteans and teleosts , appeared near the beginning of the Triassic, and quickly diversified to become among the dominant groups of fish in both freshwater and marine habitats. The vast supercontinent of Pangaea dominated the globe during the Triassic, but in the latest Triassic ( Rhaetian ) and Early Jurassic it began to gradually rift into two separate landmasses: Laurasia to

22248-649: The Triassic record: survivors from the extinction event, new groups that flourished briefly, and other new groups that went on to dominate the Mesozoic Era. Reptiles , especially archosaurs , were the chief terrestrial vertebrates during this time. A specialized group of archosaurs, called dinosaurs , first appeared in the Late Triassic but did not become dominant until the succeeding Jurassic Period. Archosaurs that became dominant in this period were primarily pseudosuchians , relatives and ancestors of modern crocodilians , while some archosaurs specialized in flight,

22454-609: The Triassic, enlarging the Neo-Tethys Ocean which formed in their wake. At the same time, they forced the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to shrink as it was being subducted under Asia. By the end of the Triassic, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean occupied a small area and the Cimmerian terranes began to collide with southern Asia. This collision, known as the Cimmerian Orogeny , continued into the Jurassic and Cretaceous to produce

22660-646: The U.S. Armory at Springfield . At that time, on the western bank of the Connecticut River, the explorers found the Pocomtuc (or perhaps Nipmuck ) Indian village of Agawam. Just south of the Westfield River , the colonists constructed a pre-fabricated house in what is present-day Agawam, Massachusetts . In 1636, Pynchon led a settlement expedition with a larger group, including Henry Smith (Pynchon's son-in-law), Jehu Burr, William Blake, Matthew Mitchell, Edmund Wood, Thomas Ufford, and John Cable. Springfield

22866-700: The United States' first witch trial in 1646—decades before the Salem Witch Trials ; and a few years later in 1650, a Springfielder wrote the New World's first banned book , The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption by William Pynchon . Pynchon was the founder of the city of Springfield. His book, expressing views contrary to Puritan Calvinist doctrine, caused him to be brought before the high court in Boston and accused of heresy . He later to return to England. In Springfield, in 1860, Milton Bradley invented and produced his popular parlor games, including

23072-839: The Wrangellia Large Igneous Province around 234 Ma caused abrupt global warming, terminating the cooling trend of the LCC. This warming was responsible for the Carnian Pluvial Event and resulted in an episode of widespread global humidity. The CPE ushered in the Mid-Carnian Warm Interval (MCWI), which lasted from 234 to 227 Ma. At the Carnian-Norian boundary occurred a positive δ C excursion believed to signify an increase in organic carbon burial. From 227 to 217 Ma, there

23278-596: The beginning of the river's course in the town of Pittsburg is occupied by the Connecticut Lakes, which contain lake trout and landlocked salmon . Landlocked salmon make their way into the river during spring spawning runs of bait fish and during their fall spawn. The river has fly-fishing-only regulations on 5 miles (8 km) of river. Most of the river from Lake Francis south is open to lure and bait as well. Two tail-water dams provide cold river water for miles downstream, making for bountiful summer fishing on

23484-455: The bizarre long-necked archosauromorph Tanystropheus ), along with some terrestrial forms like Ticinosuchus and Macrocnemus , have been recovered from this locality. All these fossils date from the Anisian and Ladinian ages (about 242 Ma ago). The Triassic Period ended with a mass extinction, which was particularly severe in the oceans; the conodonts disappeared, as did all

23690-452: The border of Massachusetts where it sits 190 feet (58 m) above sea level. The region along the river upstream and downstream from Lebanon, New Hampshire , and White River Junction, Vermont , is known as the "Upper Valley". The exact definition of the region varies, but it generally is considered to extend south to Windsor, Vermont , and Cornish, New Hampshire , and north to Bradford, Vermont , and Piermont, New Hampshire . In 2001,

23896-471: The bulk of modern Northampton was sold to settlers from Springfield, Massachusetts , in 1653, and settled the following year. The situation in the region further deteriorated when the Mohawk escalated hostilities against the Pocumtuc confederacy and other Algonquian tribes after 1655, forcing many of the plague-devastated Algonquian groups into defensive mergers. This coincided with a souring of relations between

24102-502: The captives, and negotiations were conducted between colonial governments. When New England released the French pirate, Canada arranged redemption of numerous Deerfield people, among them the minister John Williams . He wrote a captivity narrative about his experience, which was published in 1707 and became well known. Because of losses to war and disease, the Mohawk and other tribes often adopted younger captives into their tribes. Such

24308-603: The college town of Northampton. Triassic The Triassic ( / t r aɪ ˈ æ s ɪ k / try- ASS -ik ; sometimes symbolized 🝈 ) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.5 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago ( Mya ), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.4 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period of the Mesozoic Era and

24514-509: The command of Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville were 47 Canadiens and 200 Abenaki , Kanienkehaka and Wyandot , as well as a few Pocumtuck. They struck at dawn, razing Deerfield and killing 56 colonists, including 22 men, 9 women, and 25 children. They took as captives 109 survivors, including women and children, and "carried" them away on a months-long trek to Quebec . Many died along the way or were killed when they could not keep up. Deerfield and other communities collected funds to ransom

24720-544: The county's outlying towns preserve their traditional, bucolic characters. In terms of political demographics, Hampshire County is one of the most liberal areas in the United States in both voter registration and election returns. Hampden County is the most highly urbanized county in Western Massachusetts ; however, its environs have long been described as rus in urbe —cities amidst forests. Springfield, Massachusetts —the "shire town" for which Hampden County

24926-617: The dam's powerhouse from being overwhelmed, despite blocks of ice breaking through the upstream walls. In Northampton, Massachusetts , looting during the flood became a problem, causing the mayor of the city to deputize citizen patrols to protect flooded areas. Over 3,000 refugees from the area were housed in Amherst College and the Massachusetts State Agricultural College (now UMass Amherst ). Unprecedented accumulated ice jams compounded

25132-594: The decline of the mills (e.g., Turners Falls ). Massachusetts's Routes 2 and 2A, which run through Franklin County, feature many antique stores. Hampshire County is the home to five prominent colleges and universities that cooperate with each other and are known collectively as the Five Colleges . They are UMass Amherst , Amherst , Mount Holyoke , Smith , and Hampshire . Each of these highly regarded liberal arts colleges and universities contribute to Hampshire County's college town atmosphere, particularly in

25338-506: The dental plates, abundant in the fossils record. Hybodonts , a group of shark-like cartilaginous fish , were dominant in both freshwater and marine environments throughout the Triassic. Last survivors of the mainly Palaeozoic Eugeneodontida are known from the Early Triassic. Temnospondyl amphibians were among those groups that survived the Permian–Triassic extinction. Once abundant in both terrestrial and aquatic environments,

25544-423: The diminishing fur trade into agricultural pursuits, and also founded several new towns, including Northampton, Massachusetts . The area now called Northampton was once known as Norwottuck, or Nonotuck, meaning "the midst of the river" by its original Pocumtuc inhabitants. According to various accounts, Northampton was named by John King (1629–1703), one of its original settlers, or possibly in his honor, since it

25750-428: The dominant carnivores in the early Triassic. Phytosaurs were a particularly common group which prospered during the Late Triassic. These long-snouted and semiaquatic predators resemble living crocodiles and probably had a similar lifestyle, hunting for fish and small reptiles around the water's edge. However, this resemblance is only superficial and is a prime-case of convergent evolution. True archosaurs appeared in

25956-530: The early 1600s to name the river, which was also called simply "The Great River". It was also known as the Fresh River, and the Dutch called it the Verse River. Early spellings of the name by European explorers included "Cannitticutt" in French or in English. Archaeological digs reveal human habitation of the Connecticut River Valley for 6,000 years before present. Numerous tribes lived throughout

26162-405: The early Triassic, splitting into two branches: Avemetatarsalia (the ancestors to birds) and Pseudosuchia (the ancestors to crocodilians). Avemetatarsalians were a minor component of their ecosystems, but eventually produced the earliest pterosaurs and dinosaurs in the Late Triassic. Early long-tailed pterosaurs appeared in the Norian and quickly spread worldwide. Triassic dinosaurs evolved in

26368-539: The east side of the river, which was slightly less advantageous for farming because of its prominent bluffs and hills. The initial land grants to English families were made there in what is today Springfield's Metro Center , along what is today Main Street.<name="King 1885"/> Long, narrow plots of farmland were created, extending outward from the river. In addition, more distant forested "wood lots" were offered. The original, main profit-generating industry for Springfield

26574-544: The end of the French and Indian War in 1763. The Abenaki had resisted British colonial settlement for decades, but colonists began settling north of Brattleboro, Vermont , following the war. Settlement of the Upper Connecticut River Valley increased quickly, with population assessments of 36,000 by 1790. Vermont was claimed by both New Hampshire and New York , and was settled primarily through

26780-640: The entire Phanerozoic, seeing as it occurred during and immediately after the discharge of titanic volumes of greenhouse gases from the Siberian Traps. The Early Triassic began with the Permian-Triassic Thermal Maximum (PTTM) and was followed by the brief Dienerian Cooling (DC) from 251 to 249 Ma, which was in turn followed by the Latest Smithian Thermal Maximum (LSTT) around 249 to 248 Ma. During

26986-467: The equator and extended between the poles, though it did drift northwards as the period progressed. Southern Pangea, also known as Gondwana , was made up by closely-appressed cratons corresponding to modern South America , Africa , Madagascar , India , Antarctica , and Australia . North Pangea, also known as Laurussia or Laurasia , corresponds to modern-day North America and the fragmented predecessors of Eurasia . The western edge of Pangea lay at

27192-463: The establishment of the independent Vermont Republic in 1777 and its eventual accession to the United States in 1791 as the fourteenth state. Boundary disputes between Vermont and New Hampshire lasted for nearly 150 years and were finally settled in 1933, when the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed King George's boundary as the ordinary low-water mark on the Vermont shore. In some places, the state line

27398-594: The extinct family Cheirolepidiaceae , which first appeared in the Late Triassic, and would be prominent throughout most of the rest of the Mesozoic. No known coal deposits date from the start of the Triassic Period. This is known as the Early Triassic "coal gap" and can be seen as part of the Permian–Triassic extinction event . Possible explanations for the coal gap include sharp drops in sea level at

27604-576: The fertile Connecticut River valley prior to Dutch exploration beginning in 1614. Information concerning how these tribes lived and interacted stems mostly from English accounts written during the 1630s. The Pequots dominated a territory in the southern region of the Connecticut River valley, stretching roughly from the river's mouth at Old Saybrook, Connecticut , north to just below the Big Bend at Middletown, Connecticut . They warred with and attempted to subjugate neighboring agricultural tribes such as

27810-406: The first time among vertebrates, becoming the pterosaurs . Therapsids , the dominant vertebrates of the preceding Permian period, saw a brief surge in diversification in the Triassic, with dicynodonts and cynodonts quickly becoming dominant, but they declined throughout the period with the majority becoming extinct by the end. However, the first stem-group mammals ( mammaliamorphs ), themselves

28016-495: The first time the national leaders of the abolition movement like Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth . In Springfield, in response to the Fugitive Slave Act , John Brown founded his first militant anti-slavery organization, The League of Gileadites . Brown's years in Springfield have often been called his "transformative years." To the extent that military history adds to a place's culture, Springfield's history

28222-585: The funded construction of the United States' first high-speed bullet-train, known as the Knowledge Corridor intercity rail line as well as a sharp decreases in crime and new festivals that have renewed the city's traditionally robust civic pride. Springfield itself features international tourist attractions like the Basketball Hall of Fame and the Springfield Armory National Historic Site ; it also features

28428-521: The global ocean triggered intense cross-equatorial monsoons , sometimes referred to as the Pangean megamonsoons . The Triassic may have mostly been a dry period, but evidence exists that it was punctuated by several episodes of increased rainfall in tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Tethys Sea and its surrounding land. Sediments and fossils suggestive of a more humid climate are known from

28634-463: The holding and releasing of water between the river's 54 largest dams. The Cabot and Turners Falls hydroelectric stations generate up to 68 MW. The Holyoke Canal System and Hadley Falls Station at Holyoke Dam are rated a combined 48 MW. The Connecticut River watershed encompasses 11,260 square miles (29,200 km ), connecting 148 tributaries, including 38 major rivers and numerous lakes and ponds. Major tributaries include (from north to south)

28840-408: The hurt of Martha and Rebeckah Moxon," two daughters of Springfield's first minister—and also of murdering her own child. In turn, Mary Parsons then accused her own husband, Hugh Parsons, of witchcraft. At America's first witch trial , both Mary and Hugh Parsons were found not guilty of witchcraft for want of satisfactory evidence; however, Mary was found guilty of murdering her own child. For this, she

29046-420: The impact. So, the evidence suggests the Manicouagan impact preceded the end of the Triassic by approximately 10±2 Ma. It could not therefore be the immediate cause of the observed mass extinction. The number of Late Triassic extinctions is disputed. Some studies suggest that there are at least two periods of extinction towards the end of the Triassic, separated by 12 to 17 million years. But arguing against this

29252-401: The keystone predators of most Triassic terrestrial ecosystems. Over 25 species have been found, including giant quadrupedal hunters, sleek bipedal omnivores, and lumbering beasts with deep sails on their backs. They probably occupied the large-predator niche later filled by theropods. "Rauisuchians" were ancestral to small, lightly-built crocodylomorphs, the only pseudosuchians which survived into

29458-402: The largest water basin in Massachusetts—and along the Connecticut River—at 741 square miles. Across from Chicopee, on the west side of the Connecticut River, the Holyoke Mall at Ingleside is one of the largest malls in New England. In addition to the mall, Holyoke is home to the Mount Tom Range of mountains, the Holyoke Canal System , and the Volleyball Hall of Fame . (The sport of volleyball

29664-569: The late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as of the 2010 census , the region features a rapidly growing Hispanic population in nearly all urban areas. This influx includes large numbers of Puerto Ricans . Among the European-American community, the Pioneer Valley's population reflects the British Isles background of its original settlers and the immigrant populations that settled it during the late-nineteenth century, including large numbers of residents with Irish, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, French Canadian, and Greek backgrounds. As of 2011, Springfield

29870-570: The local Natives with war if they did not sell their corn at a "reasonable price." The Natives capitulated and ultimately sold the colonists corn. Pynchon, an avowed "man of peace," believed in negotiation with the Natives (and thus, quickly made a fortune), whereas Mason—a hero of the Pequot Wars and conqueror of Connecticut—believed in subduing Natives by force if necessary. This philosophical difference led to Mason using "hard words" against Pynchon. Pynchon's settlement, however, agreed with him, and his philosophy, and that same year, voted to separate from

30076-409: The log drivers. Mount Tom was the landmark the log drivers used to gauge the distance to the final mills near Holyoke, Massachusetts . These spring drives were stopped after 1915, when pleasure boat owners complained about the hazards to navigation. The final drive included 500 workers controlling 65 million feet of logs. A final pulp drive consisted of 100,000 cords of four-foot logs in 1918. This

30282-489: The mammaliaforms to develop fur and a higher metabolic rate . Two Early Triassic lagerstätten (high-quality fossil beds), the Dienerian aged Guiyang biota and the earliest Spathian aged Paris biota stand out due to their exceptional preservation and diversity . They represent the earliest lagerstätten of the Mesozoic era and provide insight into the biotic recovery from the Permian-Triassic mass extinction event. The Monte San Giorgio lagerstätte, now in

30488-573: The margin of an enormous ocean, Panthalassa ( lit.   ' entire sea ' ), which roughly corresponds to the modern Pacific Ocean . Practically all deep-ocean crust present during the Triassic has been recycled through the subduction of oceanic plates, so very little is known about the open ocean from this time period. Most information on Panthalassan geology and marine life is derived from island arcs and rare seafloor sediments accreted onto surrounding land masses, such as present-day Japan and western North America. The eastern edge of Pangea

30694-453: The marine reptiles except ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs . Invertebrates like brachiopods and molluscs (such as gastropods ) were severely affected. In the oceans, 22% of marine families and possibly about half of marine genera went missing. Though the end-Triassic extinction event was not equally devastating in all terrestrial ecosystems, several important clades of crurotarsans (large archosaurian reptiles previously grouped together as

30900-449: The new township of Pocumtuck. To obtain this land, their agent John Plympton signed a treaty with some Pocumtuck men, including one named Chaulk. He had no authority to deed the land to the colonists, and appeared to have only a rough idea of what he was signing. Native Americans and English had quite differing ideas about property and land use, which contributed to their conflicts, along with competition for resources. The settlers expelled

31106-430: The next most common tetrapods, and early dinosaurs, passed through unchanged. However, both phytosaurs and aetosaurs were among the groups of archosaur reptiles completely wiped out by the end-Triassic extinction event. It seems likely then that there was some sort of end-Carnian extinction, when several herbivorous archosauromorph groups died out, while the large herbivorous therapsids —the kannemeyeriid dicynodonts and

31312-453: The north and Gondwana to the south. The global climate during the Triassic was mostly hot and dry, with deserts spanning much of Pangaea's interior. However, the climate shifted and became more humid as Pangaea began to drift apart. The end of the period was marked by yet another major mass extinction, the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event , that wiped out many groups, including most pseudosuchians, and allowed dinosaurs to assume dominance in

31518-404: The northeast, over 430,000 people were made homeless or destitute by flooding that year. The Connecticut River Flood Control Compact between the states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont was established in 1953 to help prevent serious flooding. The creation of the Quabbin Reservoir in the 1930s diverted the Swift River , which feeds the Chicopee River, a tributary of

31724-402: The order Isoetales (which contains living quillworts ), rose to prominence due to the environmental instability following the Permian-Triassic extinction, with one particularly notable example being the genus Pleuromeia , which grew in columnar like fashion, sometimes reaching a height of 2 metres (6.6 ft). The relevance of lycophytes declined from the Middle Triassic onwards, following

31930-404: The police to issue a "shoot on sight" edict; 800 National Guard troops were brought in to help maintain order. Rescue efforts using a flotilla of boats saved people trapped in upper stories of buildings, bringing them to local fraternal lodges, schools, churches and monasteries for lodging, medical care, and food. The American Red Cross and local, state and federal agencies, including the WPA and

32136-401: The presence of large, shifting sandbars at its mouth, the Connecticut is the only major river in the Northeastern United States without a port at its mouth. The Connecticut River carries a heavy amount of silt from as far north as Quebec, especially during the spring snow melt. This results in a large sandbar near the river's mouth which is a formidable obstacle to navigation. The Connecticut

32342-609: The problems created by the flood, diverting water into unusual channels and damming the river, raising water levels even further. When the jam at Hadley, Massachusetts , gave way, the water crest overflowed the dam at Holyoke , overwhelming the sandbagging there. The village of South Hadley Falls was essentially destroyed, and the southern parts of Holyoke were severely damaged, with 500 refugees. In Springfield, Massachusetts, 5 sq mi (13 km ), and 18 miles (29 km) of streets, were flooded, and 20,000 people lost their homes. The city lost power, and nighttime looting caused

32548-417: The prominence of the Five Colleges in Hampshire County. Similarly the Springfield – Chicopee – Holyoke economies transformed from volume producers of goods such as paper and armaments , into a combination of specialized manufacturing and distribution services for Boston and New York City. Many of the cities and towns include areas of forests, and Springfield itself, which in the early twentieth century

32754-472: The property. Following the most recent ice age , the Middle Connecticut River Valley sat at the bottom of Lake Hitchcock . Its lush greenery and rich, almost rockless soil comes from the ancient lake's sedimentary deposits. In the Middle Connecticut region, the river reaches its maximum depth – 130 feet (40 m) – at Gill, Massachusetts , around the French King Bridge , and its maximum width – 2,100 feet (640 m) – at Longmeadow , directly across from

32960-435: The region. The name "Pioneer Valley" originates in the twentieth century with travel writers using it in the 1920s and 1930s to designate the region. In 1939 the Pioneer Valley Association was formed to promote the region using that name. The Pioneer Valley is a popular, year-round tourist destination—a role that it has played historically, prior to its deindustrialization (from approximately 1970–2000). Travelers are drawn to

33166-416: The return of more stable environmental conditions. While having first appeared during the Permian, the extinct seed plant group Bennettitales first became a prominent element in global floras during the Late Triassic, a position they would hold for much of the Mesozoic. In the Southern Hemisphere landmasses of Gondwana, the tree Dicroidium , an extinct " seed fern " belong to the order Corystospermales

33372-431: The river's first unnavigable waterfall. Pynchon surmised that traders using any of these routes would have to dock and change ships at his site, thereby granting the settlement a commercial advantage. It was initially named Agawam Plantation and was allied with the settlements to the south that became the state of Connecticut. In 1641, Springfield splintered off from the Hartford-based Connecticut Colony, allying itself with

33578-402: The river, and varves and deltas deposited by Lake Hitchcock during the Pleistocene . The region known as the Pioneer Valley constitutes Massachusetts's portion of the fertile Connecticut River Valley and the hill and mountain towns to its east and west. The following three counties—from north to south, and each with a different character—encompass the Pioneer Valley: Franklin County

33784-561: The second-largest city and the only state capital on the river, is at the southern end of this region on an ancient floodplain that stretches to Middletown. 15 miles (24 km) south of Hartford, at Middletown, the Lower Connecticut River section begins with a narrowing of the river, and then a sharp turn southeast. Throughout southern Connecticut, the Connecticut passes through a thinly populated, hilly, wooded region before again widening and discharging into Long Island Sound between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme in flat coastal marshlands. Due to

33990-499: The seventh period of the Phanerozoic Eon . Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events . The Triassic Period is subdivided into three epochs: Early Triassic , Middle Triassic and Late Triassic . The Triassic began in the wake of the Permian–Triassic extinction event , which left the Earth's biosphere impoverished; it was well into the middle of the Triassic before life recovered its former diversity. Three categories of organisms can be distinguished in

34196-447: The shad population has increased. The mouth of the river up to Essex is thought to be one of the busiest stretches of waterway in Connecticut. Some local police departments and the state Environmental Conservation Police patrol the area a few times a week. Some towns keep boats available if needed. In Massachusetts, the most active stretch of the Connecticut River is centered on the Oxbow , 14 miles (23 km) north of Springfield in

34402-404: The significant college towns of Northampton and Amherst . Much of Hampshire County's cultural activity, vibrant nightlife, and musical venues are concentrated in these two small but lively municipalities that are separated by a mere seven miles. While the college towns in Hampshire County are known for their liberal political values and their embrace of alternative cultures and lifestyles, many of

34608-403: The site in Connecticut of the Dutch Fort House of Hope, where he founded Newtowne. Shortly after Hooker's arrival, Newtowne annexed Matianuck based on laws articulated in Connecticut's settlement charter, the Warwick Patent of 1631. The patent, however, had been physically lost, and the annexation was almost certainly illegal. The fourth English settlement along the Connecticut River came out of

34814-407: The smaller cities of Northampton and Greenfield , the county seats of Hampshire and Franklin counties, respectively. Historically the northern part of the Valley was an agricultural region, known for growing Connecticut shade tobacco and other specialty crops like Hadley asparagus ; however, since the late nineteenth century its economy has become increasingly a knowledge economy , due to

35020-452: The southern Connecticut River Valley —an ancient rift valley created by the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge during the Triassic and Jurassic periods of the Mesozoic Era. The Connecticut River has been flowing through the valley for millions of years and was naturally dammed to form glacial lake Hitchcock during the last ice age. According to King's Handbook of Springfield , by Moses King ,

35226-551: The spring of 1640, grain was very scarce; cattle were dying of starvation. The nearby Connecticut Colony settlements gave power to William Pynchon to buy corn for all four English settlements, (Springfield's natives were, by far, the most congenial to the English.) If the Natives would not sell their corn at market prices, then Pynchon was authorized to offer more money. The Natives refused to sell their corn at market prices, and then later refused to sell it at "reasonable" prices. Pynchon refused to buy it, believing it best not to broadcast

35432-459: The still popular The Game of Life . Also in Springfield, Dr. Seuss grew up, and wrote several of the works for which he is now best known, (e.g. And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street.) Psychiatrist and LSD activist Timothy Leary —the man who influenced a generations to "turn on, tune in, drop out"—was born and educated in Springfield. Earlier, from 1846 to 1850, John Brown , the famed abolitionist, lived in Springfield, where he met, for

35638-421: The surrounding region. The high volume and numerous falls of the river led to the rise of industry along its banks during the Industrial Revolution . The cities of Springfield and Hartford in particular became centers of innovation and "intense and concentrated prosperity." The Enfield Falls Canal was opened in 1829 to circumvent shallows around Enfield Falls, and the locks built for this canal gave their name to

35844-454: The terminus of the Triassic, there was an extreme warming event referred to as the End-Triassic Thermal Event (ETTE), which was responsible for the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction. Bubbles of carbon dioxide in basaltic rocks dating back to the end of the Triassic indicate that volcanic activity from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province helped trigger climate change in the ETTE. During the Early Triassic, lycophytes , particularly those of

36050-527: The terrestrial species had mostly died out during the extinction event. The Triassic survivors were aquatic or semi-aquatic, and were represented by Tupilakosaurus , Thabanchuia , Branchiosauridae and Micropholis , all of which died out in Early Triassic, and the successful Stereospondyli , with survivors into the Cretaceous Period. The largest Triassic stereospondyls, such as Mastodonsaurus , were up to 4 to 6 metres (13 to 20 ft) in length. Some lineages (e.g. trematosaurs ) flourished briefly in

36256-401: The thermal plume reaching 55 miles (89 km) downstream as far as Holyoke. This thermal pollution appears to be associated with an 80% decline in American shad fish numbers from 1992 to 2005 at Holyoke Dam. This decline may have been exacerbated by over-fishing in the mid-Atlantic and predation from resurging striped bass populations. The nuclear plant was closed at the end of 2014, after which

36462-467: The time of the English colonists' arrival, the Deerfield area was inhabited by the Algonquian -speaking Pocumtuck nation, with a major village by the same name. First settled by English colonists in 1673, Deerfield was incorporated in 1677. Settlement was the result of a court case in which the government in Boston agreed to return some of the land of the town of Dedham to Native American control, and allowed some of Dedham's residents to acquire land in

36668-513: The time of the Permo-Triassic boundary; acid rain from the Siberian Traps eruptions or from an impact event that overwhelmed acidic swamps; climate shift to a greenhouse climate that was too hot and dry for peat accumulation; evolution of fungi or herbivores that were more destructive of wetlands; the extinction of all plants adapted to peat swamps, with a hiatus of several million years before new plant species evolved that were adapted to peat swamps; or soil anoxia as oxygen levels plummeted. Before

36874-436: The town of Windsor Locks, Connecticut . The Connecticut River Valley functioned as America's hub of technical innovation into the 20th century, particularly the cities of Springfield and Hartford, and thus attracted numerous railroad lines. The proliferation of the railroads in Springfield and Hartford greatly decreased the economic importance of the Connecticut River. From the late 1800s until today, it has functioned largely as

37080-463: The town's past. Residents founded the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association in 1870, and erected monuments to commemorate various events, including the Bloody Brook and 1704 attacks. In 1890, Charlotte Alice Baker returned to Deerfield to restore her family home, the Frary House. Assisted by the Boston architectural firm of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge , her project was one of the first in historic preservation in western Massachusetts. Today, tourism

37286-429: The watershed (Connecticut and Massachusetts) than in the northern part (Vermont and New Hampshire), largely due to differences in stream gradient and substrate. Eight of the 12 species in the watershed are listed as endangered, threatened, or of special concern in one or more of the states in the watershed. A number of colonial animal species make their home in the waters of the Connecticut. Deeper areas are habitat for

37492-476: The west, the 78.1 mile Westfield River , (the Connecticut River's longest tributary river in Massachusetts); in the middle, the 418.0 mile Connecticut River , then known as "The Great River"; and to the east two smaller rivers: the 18.0 mile Chicopee River , which featured the fast moving and the Connecticut River's largest water basin; and also, the Mill River , which would become very important approximately 150 years later after George Washington 's foundation of

37698-471: The westernmost settlement in Massachusetts. In 1645, 46 years before the Salem witch trials , Springfield experienced America's first accusations of witchcraft when Mary Parsons accused a widow named Marshfield, who had moved from Windsor to Springfield, with witchcraft—an offense then punishable by death. For this, Mary Parsons was found guilty of slander. In 1651, Mary Parsons was accused of witchcraft—specifically "divers devilish practices by witchcraft, to

37904-476: The world's first American-English dictionary was published in Springfield in 1806, and is still published in the city by Merriam Webster . Also, the first comprehensive, major United States history book was written by Springfielder George Bancroft in 1830. To the extent that cultural contributions comprise invention, innovation, and progress, Springfield has been, historically, one of the nation's most innovative cities. In 1819, inventor Thomas Blanchard invented

38110-469: The world's first automobile race in 1895 in Chicago. In 1901, the first motorcycle company in the world was "Indian" , produced in Springfield; in 1905, the first modern fire engines in the world were produced by Knox Automobile (which made Springfield's fire department the first modern fire department in the world;), and the first commercial radio station in the U.S., WBZ , was broadcast from Springfield in 1921. Of national importance, Springfield featured

38316-406: Was 18 hoes, 18 fathoms of wampum, 18 coats, 18 hatchets and 18 knives. Originally, in 1636, the English settlement was named Agawam Plantation. By founding "Agawam" in its particular location, Pynchon essentially forced all northerly river trade to move through his town. After warnings from the Natives about the Connecticut River's west side being prone to flooding, most Springfield settlers moved to

38522-425: Was Massachusetts' first settlement for non-religious reasons, although many of its settlers were very religious, as indicated by their first article of incorporation, "Wee intend by God's grace, as soon as we can, with all convenient speede to procure some Godly and faithfull minister we purpose to joyne in church covenant, to walk in all the ways of Christ" In scouting Springfield, Cable, Woodcock, and Pynchon selected

38728-427: Was a dominant element in forest habitats across the region during the Middle-Late Triassic. During the Late Triassic, the Ginkgoales (which today are represented by only a single species, Ginkgo biloba ) underwent considerable diversification. Conifers were abundant during the Triassic, and included the Voltziales (which contains various lineages, probably including those ancestral to modern conifers), as well as

38934-457: Was a relatively cool period known as the Early Norian Cool Interval (ENCI), after which occurred the Mid-Norian Warm Interval (MNWI) from 217 to 209 Ma. The MNWI was briefly interrupted around 214 Ma by a cooling possibly related to the Manicouagan impact . Around 212 Ma, a 10 Myr eccentricity maximum caused a paludification of Pangaea and a reduction in the size of arid climatic zones. The Rhaetian Cool Interval (RCI) lasted from 209 to 201 Ma. At

39140-415: Was accompanied by huge volcanic eruptions that occurred as the supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart about 202 to 191 million years ago (40Ar/39Ar dates), forming the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), one of the largest known inland volcanic events since the planet had first cooled and stabilized. Other possible but less likely causes for the extinction events include global cooling or even

39346-461: Was accused of heresy , and his book was burned on the Boston Common . Only four copies survived. By declaration of the Massachusetts General Court , in 1650, The Meritous Price of Our Redemption became the first-ever banned book in the New World. In 1651, Pynchon was accused of heresy by the Massachusetts General Court (at the same meeting of the Court where Springfielder Mary Parsons was sentenced to death in America's first witch trial). Thus he

39552-425: Was catalyzed by the government's controversial closure of the Springfield Armory during the Vietnam War. (In 1777, General George Washington and Henry Knox personally selected that site for the United States' Federal Arsenal.) After nearly 30 years of decline, Springfield has since about 2006 experienced a cultural and economic resurgence, catalyzed by billions of dollars in private and public investment, including

39758-421: Was colonized by the English in 1686 as part of Deerfield . In 1753, Greenfield was set off from Deerfield and incorporated as a separate town, named for the Green River . In 1795, the South Hadley Canal opened, allowing boats to bypass the South Hadley falls and reach Greenfield via the Connecticut River . Located at the confluence of the Deerfield and Green rivers, and not far from where they merge into

39964-428: Was encroached upon by a pair of extensive oceanic basins: The Neo-Tethys (or simply Tethys) and Paleo-Tethys Oceans . These extended from China to Iberia, hosting abundant marine life along their shallow tropical peripheries. They were divided from each other by a long string of microcontinents known as the Cimmerian terranes . Cimmerian crust had detached from Gondwana in the early Permian and drifted northwards during

40170-440: Was initially carved out of Hampshire County in 1814—is located in southern Hampden County, at a natural crossroads where three significant rivers flow into Connecticut River (the Westfield , the Chicopee , and the Mill ). Springfield's history is long, illustrious, and well-chronicled. It was one of the United States' most important precision manufacturing and defense centers until its relatively recent deindustrialization, which

40376-516: Was invented in Holyoke in 1895.) The city of Westfield features Westfield State University , founded by renowned education reformer Horace Mann . Near to Westfield—approximately 15 miles west of Springfield—numerous outdoor opportunities are available, such as alpine skiing at Blandford Ski Area and the United States's oldest white-water rafting races on the 78.1 mile Westfield River , the longest Connecticut River tributary in Massachusetts. The international airport that serves Hampden County, and

40582-442: Was itself incorporated in 1780) and Easthampton. Westhampton was incorporated in 1778, and Easthampton in 1809. Formerly, a section of Northampton called Smith's Ferry was separated from the rest of the town by the boundaries of Easthampton. The shortest path to downtown was on a road near the Connecticut River oxbow , which was subject to frequent flooding. Smith's Ferry was ceded to Holyoke, Massachusetts , in 1909. Deerfield

40788-420: Was nicknamed "The City in a Forest," features nature within its city limits and over 12% parkland. The Pioneer Valley is known for its scenery and as a vacation destination. The Holyoke Range , Mount Tom Range , and numerous rolling hills, bluffs, and meadows feature extravagant homes from the Gilded Age , many of which surround New England's longest and largest river, the Connecticut River , which flows through

40994-427: Was ranked one of the Top 10 gay cities in the United States. The 2010 census figures indicate the number of same-sex households per thousand. Springfield ranked No. 10, with 5.69 same-sex couples per thousand. In January 2010, the national LGBT magazine The Advocate rated Springfield No. 13 among its new "15 Gayest Secondary Cities in America," ahead of San Diego, California and Albuquerque, New Mexico . Springfield

41200-558: Was sentenced to death, but died in prison in 1651, before receiving her death sentence. In 1650, William Pynchon became infamous for writing the New World's first banned book. In 1649, Pynchon found time to write a book, The Meritous Price of Our Redemption , a theological study that was published in London in 1650. Several copies made it back to the Massachusetts Bay Colony and its capital, Boston, which, this time reacted with rage to Pynchon rather than with support. For his critical attitude toward Massachusetts' Calvinist Puritanism , Pynchon

41406-456: Was set off and incorporated. During the early nineteenth century, Deerfield's role in agricultural production of the Northeast declined. It was overtaken by the rapid development of the Midwestern United States into the nation's breadbasket , with transportation to eastern markets and New York City enhanced by construction of the Erie Canal . During the Colonial Revival Movement of the late nineteenth century, Deerfield citizens rediscovered

41612-474: Was the case with Williams' daughter Eunice , eight years old when captured. She became thoroughly assimilated, at age 16 marrying a Mohawk man. Most of the Deerfield captives eventually returned to New England . During this period, other captives remained by choice in French and Native communities such as Kahnawake for the rest of their lives. As the frontier moved north, Deerfield became another colonial town with an unquiet early history. In 1753 Greenfield

41818-435: Was the northwesternmost outpost of New England settlement for several decades during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. It occupies a fertile portion of the Connecticut River Valley and was vulnerable to attack because of its position near the Berkshire Mountains . For these reasons it became the site of several Anglo-French and Indian skirmishes during its early history, as well as intertribal warfare. At

42024-497: Was the only Massachusetts city included on The Advocate ' s list. The cities of Northampton and Springfield, in particular, feature vibrant LGBT communities. Unlike in other communities across the United States, LGBT residents have largely integrated into Northampton and Springfield, i.e. neither city features a gay ghetto . Generally, in the Pioneer Valley, LGBT people and straight people co-mingle in various bars, nightclubs, and cultural institutions. Still, both cities feature

42230-426: Was to take advantage of the wartime demand. In March 1936, due to a winter with heavy snowfall, an early spring thaw and torrential rains, the Connecticut River flooded, overflowing its banks, destroying numerous bridges and isolating hundreds of people who had to be rescued by boat. The dam at Vernon, Vermont , was topped by 19 feet (5.8 m). Sandbagging by the National Guard and local volunteers helped prevent

42436-400: Was trade with the Indians for beaver skins, which were then exported around the colonial world. In 1640 and 1641, two events took place that forever changed the political boundaries of the Connecticut River Valley. From its founding until that time, Springfield had been administered by Connecticut, along with Connecticut's three other settlements—at Wethersfield , Hartford , and Windsor . In

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