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99-474: The important thing to scientists was that the Prioksko-Terrasny biosphere reserve is situated on the border of the subzone of European taiga with the admixture of broad-leaved species and the subzone of broad-leaved forests. The functions of reserve were in preservation of typical ecosystems and unique observation of the natural dynamics of ecosystems and their components (biota, soil, water, climate),

198-502: A 2012 survey in Germany. Thirteen species of fleas in the genera Ceratophyllus and Dasypsyllus have been found on this bunting, and internal parasites include Ascaridia galli . The yellowhammer may carry haematozoan blood parasites such as Haemoproteus coatneyi . Males with high parasite levels produced fewer offspring (there is no such effect for females), and tend to be less brightly coloured. The striking plumage of

297-597: A Caravan , and wrote a poem called "The Yellow-hammer". Beethoven's student, Carl Czerny , and biographer Anton Schindler , both suggested that the composer got the idea for the first four notes of his 5th symphony from the yellowhammer's call, although more likely the opening of the 4th Piano Concerto was actually the work in question. Beethoven also used the yellowhammer theme in two piano sonatas , no. 21 in C major (the "Waldstein", Op.53) and No. 23 in F minor (the "Appassionata", Op.57). Olivier Messiaen often used birdsong as an inspiration for his music, and

396-513: A bank or low in a bush. It is constructed from nearby plant material, such as leaves, dry grass, and stalks, and is lined with fine grasses and sometimes animal hair. It is 11.5–13 cm (4.5–5.1 in) across with a cup 4–4.5 cm (1.6–1.8 in) deep. The clutch is usually three to five whitish eggs, typically patterned with a network of fine, dark lines. The eggs average 21 mm × 16 mm (0.83 in × 0.63 in) in size and weigh 2.9 g (0.10 oz), of which 6%

495-446: A baseline and trends in environmental parameters. The results of monitoring are usually reviewed, analyzed statistically , and published. A monitoring program is designed around the intended use of the data before monitoring starts. Environmental monitoring includes monitoring of air quality , soils and water quality . Air pollutants are atmospheric substances—both naturally occurring and anthropogenic —which may potentially have

594-473: A clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where E. coli or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including specific monitoring for pathogenic species

693-400: A given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. Simple random sampling is most useful when

792-449: A means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports. One formal certification scheme exists specifically for environmental data management software. This

891-694: A negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring. Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions. These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS) models, and

990-478: A number of commercial software packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself. Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide

1089-582: A preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS–G-1.8 and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64. Radiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as

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1188-459: A reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism. All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies

1287-578: A relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) sampler, Chemcatcher , polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs), stabilized liquid membrane devices (SLMDs), and an air sampling pump . Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment

1386-581: A river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1 mm / hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or meteor burst technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals. Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to

1485-507: A significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil. Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., mercury , lead , and arsenic ) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases

1584-407: A site, unit, or process. Ranked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses

1683-447: A trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip aerial protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public. Yellowhammer The yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella )

1782-471: A two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set

1881-446: Is a passerine bird in the bunting family that is native to Eurasia and has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia. Most European birds remain in the breeding range year-round, but the eastern subspecies is partially migratory , with much of the population wintering further south. The male yellowhammer has a bright yellow head, streaked brown back, chestnut rump, and yellow under parts. Other plumages are duller versions of

1980-457: Is a bird of dry, open country, preferably with a range of vegetation types and some trees from which to sing. It is absent from urban areas, forests, and wetlands. Probably originally found at forest edges and large clearing, it has benefited from traditional agriculture, which created extensive open areas with hedges and clumps of trees. Breeding normally starts in early May, but often in April in

2079-687: Is a red-list (severely declining) species in Ireland and the UK. In 2016 the species went extinct on the Isle of Man . In eastern Europe, numbers appear to be stable, although the trend in Russia is unknown. Changes to agricultural practices are thought to be responsible for reduced breeding densities. The introduced population in New Zealand has been very successful, with breeding densities much higher than in

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2178-428: Is also possible to operate gas liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry technologies (GLC/MS) to examine a wide range of potential organic pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of

2277-418: Is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes. Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all

2376-421: Is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of

2475-577: Is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if

2574-655: Is mainly on the ground, and the bird's diet consists mainly of seeds. Oily seeds, such as those of brassicas , are ignored in favour of more starchy items. Typical food plants include common nettle , docks , common knotgrass , fat hen , common chickweed , and yarrow . Grasses are also important, particularly cereals , and grain makes up a significant part of the food consumed in autumn and winter, wheat and oats being preferred to barley. When not breeding, yellowhammers forage in flocks that can occasionally number hundreds of birds, and often contain other buntings and finches . The yellowhammer adds invertebrates to its diet in

2673-502: Is more attractive to females, and is one reason for the dominance of that species where the ranges overlap. The yellowhammer breeds across the Palearctic between the 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) July isotherms . It is the commonest and most widespread European bunting, although it is absent from high mountains, Arctic regions, the western Netherlands, most of Iberia and Greece, and low-lying regions of other countries adjoining

2772-549: Is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time. However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve. The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves

2871-592: Is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing ) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting fish to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to

2970-507: Is practised. Although pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as Escherichia coli , supplemented by overall coliform bacteria counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the sewage stream. Many sewage treatment plants have no sterilisation final stage and therefore discharge an effluent which, although having

3069-947: Is provided by the Environment Agency in the U.K. under its Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS). There are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample. At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods. Sampling methods include judgmental sampling, simple random sampling, stratified sampling , systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling , grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling , remote surveillance, remote sensing , biomonitoring and other sampling methods. In judgmental sampling,

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3168-439: Is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought. In lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in

3267-496: Is shell. The female incubates the eggs for 12–14 days to hatching, and broods the altricial , downy chicks until they fledge 11–13 days later. Both adults feed the chick in the nest and two or three broods are raised each year. The adult annual survival rate in the UK is around 54%, and that for juveniles in their first year is 53%. The typical lifespan is three years, although records from Great Britain and Germany indicate birds surviving more than 13 years. Foraging

3366-1231: Is situated on the border of the subzone of European taiga with the admixture of broad-leaved species and of a subzone of broad-leaved forests of the western type. Owing to this phenomenon among birds in the reserve, there are species from taiga faunistic complex and species from faunistic complex of broad-leaved forests of western type. Typical representatives of taiga faunistic complex are: western capercaillie Tetrao urogallus L., hazel grouse Tetrastes bonasia L., black woodpecker Dryocopus martius L., golcrest Regulus regulus (L.), fieldfare Turdus pilaris L., mistle thrush Turdus viscivorus L., redwing Turdus iliacus L., siskin ( Spinus spinus (L.), red crossbill Loxia curvirostra L., bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula (L.). Among typical representatives of faunistic complex of broad-leaved forests of western type are: green woodpecker Pinus viridis L., golden oriole Oriolus oriolus L., blackbird Turdus merula L., icterine warbler Hippolais icterina (Vieill.), blackcap Sylvia atricapilla (L.), pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca (Pall.), common rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus (Pall.), greenfinch Chloris chloris (L.), hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes (L.). Among birds registered in

3465-425: Is slightly smaller and darker than the same sex of the nominate subspecies, and also has more streaking on its back, a greenish tint to the yellow of the head and more chestnut on the flanks. The male of the eastern form, E. c. erythrogenys , is paler and less streaked than E. c. citrinella . Its flanks, undertail and wing bars are usually whiter, and its crown and throat are brighter yellow. Distinguishing females of

3564-405: Is the processes and activities that are done to characterize and describe the state of the environment. It is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments , and in many circumstances in which human activities may cause harmful effects on the natural environment . Monitoring strategies and programs are generally designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish

3663-425: Is then initiated. Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical. As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10 km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then

3762-409: Is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in

3861-698: The Mediterranean Sea . It breeds in Russia east to Irkutsk , and in most of Ukraine. The Asian range extends into northwest Turkey, the Caucasus, and northern Kazakhstan. Most European yellowhammers winter within their breeding range, only the far north being vacated, although some birds move south of their breeding range in Spain, Italy, and other Mediterranean countries. Distances travelled can be up to 500 km (310 mi) for northern birds. Asian birds are more strongly migratory , deserting much of

3960-2463: The Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve, in autumn are migrating to the south-west. Part of them are wintering in southern regions of Russia and near the Black Sea , others are flying to the south-western part of Europe: the Balkans, the Apennines, South France, South Germany. The rest migrate across the Mediterranean Sea and fly to Northern Africa . Forty-one bird species winter in the Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve. Among wintering species are: Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis L., Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus L., Eurasian black grouse Lyrurus tetrix L., western capercaillie Tetrao urogallus L., hazel grouse Tetrastes bonasia L., grey partridge Perdix perdix L., long-eared owl Asio otus L., Tengmalm's owl Aegolus funereus L., little owl Athene noctua Scop., Eurasian pygmy owl Glaucidium passerinum L., tawny owl Strix aluco L., European green woodpecker Picus viridis L., grey-headed woodpecker Picus canus Gm., black woodpecker Dryocopus martius L., great spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos major L., white-backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos Bechst., middle spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos medius L., lesser spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos minor L., Eurasian jay Garrulus glandarius (L.), Eurasian magpie Pica pica (L.), hooded crow Corvus cornix L., common raven Corvus corax L., Bohemian waxwing Bombicilla garrulous (L.), goldcrest Regulus regulus (L.), fieldfare Turdus pilaris L., long-tailed tit Aegithalos caudatus (L.), willow tit Parus montanus Bald., crested tit Parus cristatus L., coal tit Parus ater L., blue tit Parus caeruleus L., great tit Parus major L., Eurasian nuthatch Sitta europea L., common treecreeper Certhia familiaris L., house sparrow Passer domesticus (L.), Eurasian tree sparrow ( Passer montanus L.), Eurasian siskin Spinus spinus (L.), European goldfinch Carduelis carduelis (L.), common redpoll Acanthis flammea (L.), red crossbill Loxia curvirosrta L., Eurasian bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula (L.), yellowhammer Emberiza citinella L. Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve

4059-1788: The Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve, two species are enlisted in Red Data Book of the Russian Federation: Osprey Pandion haliaetus L. and great grey shrike Lanius excubitor L. Twenty-six species of birds registered in the Reserve are enlisted in Red Data Book of the Moscow Region. Among them: 8 species of birds of prey : Osprey Pandion haliaetus L., European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus L., black kite Milvus migrans Bodd., hen harrier Cyrcus cyaneus L., Montagu's harrier Cyrcus pygargus L., booted eagle Hieraetus pennatus Gm., greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga Pall., red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus L., 1 species of wader: Great snipe Gallinago media Lath., 1 species of dove: stock dove Columba oenas L., 3 species of owls: Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo L., Eurasian scops owl Otus scops L., little owl Athene noctua Scop., 2 species of roller: roller Coracius garrulous L., common kingfisher Alcedo atthis L., 1 species of hoopoe: common hoopoe Upupa epops L., 5 species of woodpecker: Green woodpecker Picus canus Gm., white-backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos Bechst., middle spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos medius L., Eurasian three-toed woodpecker Picoides tridactylus L. and 5 species of passerines: wood lark Lullula arborea (L.), great grey shrike Lanius excubitor L., Eurasian nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes (L.), barred warbler Sylvia nisoria (Bechst.), azure tit Paruus cyanus Pall.). Environmental monitoring Environmental monitoring

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4158-482: The Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data. Air dispersion models that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of

4257-499: The UK. The yellowhammer is a conspicuous, vocal, and formerly common country bird, and has attracted human interest. Yellowham Wood and Yellowham Hill, near Dorchester England, both derive their names from the bird. Robbie Burns' poem "The Yellow, Yellow Yorlin'" gets its title from a Scottish name for the yellowhammer, which is given an obvious sexual connotation: "I met a pretty maid, an' unto her I said,/ 'I wad fain fin' your yellow, yellow yorlin'.' " More factual descriptions of

4356-740: The US Environmental Protection Agency 's Radnet and the SPEEDI network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the Nuclear Emergency Support Team . Bacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing

4455-748: The adults are hunted by birds of prey . Yellowhammers feed on the ground, usually in flocks outside the breeding season. Their diet is mainly seeds, supplemented by invertebrates in the breeding season. Changes to agricultural practices have led to population declines in western Europe, but its large numbers and huge range mean that the yellowhammer is classed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . This conspicuous yellow bird has inspired poems by Robert Burns and John Clare , and its characteristic song has influenced musical works by Beethoven and Messiaen . Children's writer Enid Blyton helped to popularise

4554-417: The adults, and often has a paler rump. After breeding, adults have a complete moult , which takes at least eight weeks; males acquire more yellow in the plumage each time they moult. Juveniles have a partial moult not long after fledging, replacing the head, body, and some covert feathers . Differences between the subspecies are small and geographically gradual . On average, the male of E. c. caliginosa

4653-443: The air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor. Air quality monitors are operated by citizens, regulatory agencies, non-governmental organisations and researchers to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to

4752-412: The basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with

4851-461: The benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant. Other sampling methods include the use of a denuder , needle trap devices, and microextraction techniques. Soil monitoring involves

4950-524: The bird and its behaviour can be found in John Clare's "The Yellowhammer's Nest" and "The Yellowhammer", whose final lines read: In early spring, when winds blow chilly cold, The yellowhammer, trailing grass, will come To fix a place and choose an early home, With yellow breast and head of solid gold. Enid Blyton helped to popularize the bird's song as "little bit of bread and no cheese" in books such as The Ship of Adventure and Five Go Off in

5049-426: The boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean. Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually water , in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at

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5148-421: The breeding season, particularly as food for its growing chicks. A wide range of species is taken, including springtails , grasshoppers , flies , beetles , caterpillars , earthworms , spiders , and snails . During the first few days, chicks are exclusively fed invertebrate prey, but from day three they are also fed cereal grains, which the chicks can digest efficiently. This is thought to be intentional by

5247-499: The chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer ( epilimnion ) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer ( hypolimnion ). In the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to

5346-419: The collection and/or analysis of soil and its associated quality , constituents , and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including compaction , contamination , organic material loss, biodiversity loss , slope stability issues, erosion , salinization , and acidification . Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to

5445-920: The collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time. Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground. Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl , construction work, and inadequate agriculture/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to

5544-413: The conclusion of the basic song; all are mutually recognised by birds from different areas. Each male has an individual repertoire of song variants within its regional dialect; females tend to mate with males that share their dialect, and prefer those with the largest repertoires. The pine bunting and yellowhammer are so closely related that each responds to the other's song. The male yellowhammer's song

5643-403: The dominant erosion processes in a given area. Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging "because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate." Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both

5742-410: The effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own. There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, an autosampler can be programmed to start taking samples of

5841-541: The environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the River Dee regulation system but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as pH , dissolved oxygen , conductivity , turbidity and ammonia using sondes. It

5940-633: The field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated. In adaptive cluster sampling , samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks

6039-402: The full version can be confused with the almost identical song of the pine bunting. If the final notes are omitted, confusion with the cirl bunting is possible. Other vocalisations include a zit contact call, a see alarm, and a trilled tirrr given in flight. Yellowhammer males learn their songs from their fathers, and over time, regional dialects have developed, with minor differences to

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6138-443: The ground. The three to five eggs are patterned with a mesh of fine dark lines, giving rise to the old name for the bird of "scribble lark" or "writing lark". The female incubates the eggs for 12–14 days prior to hatching, and broods the altricial downy chicks until they fledge 11–13 days later. Both adults feed the chick in the nest and raise two or three broods each year. The nest may be raided by rodents or corvids , and

6237-415: The issue before it spreads. The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity. Water quality monitoring

6336-402: The key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme. There are

6435-740: The late 2000s, providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility. Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using chromatography and spectrometry , geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and laboratory instrumentation

6534-424: The latter species. Male hybrids with pine buntings are typically white-faced and have some yellow on the head, under parts or flight feathers , but females are usually indistinguishable from yellowhammers. The song of the cock yellowhammer is a series of short notes, gradually increasing in volume and followed by one or two more protracted notes. It is often represented as "A little bit of bread and no cheese", and

6633-418: The local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring. Almost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework,

6732-484: The main islands. They sometimes visit New Zealand's subantarctic islands, although rarely staying to breed, and have reached Australia's Lord Howe Island on a number of occasions. At the beginning of the 20th century, this bunting was seen as a serious agricultural pest in its adopted country. Populations of yellowhammer have also been introduced to the Falkland Islands and South Africa. The yellowhammer

6831-469: The male may therefore have arisen as a signal of fitness to breed. Yellowhammers infected with Haemoproteus may have lower winter survival rates due to a tendency to having shorter wings. The International Union for Conservation of Nature estimates the European population of the yellowhammer to be from 54–93 million individuals, suggesting a Eurasian total of 73–186 million birds. Although

6930-420: The measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The 'measurement' of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as

7029-747: The monitored levels. If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique "chemical fingerprint" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data. Passive or "diffusive" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers, such as diffusion tubes , have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring. Air pollution can also be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants, such as lichens , mosses, fungi, and other biomass. One of

7128-598: The monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study. However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past. One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as brown trout or Atlantic salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations

7227-499: The natural process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013). Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling

7326-434: The nominate subspecies E. c. citrinella has a bright yellow head, heavily streaked brown back, rufous rump, yellow under parts, and white outer tail feathers. The female is less brightly coloured, and more streaked on the crown, breast, and flanks. Both sexes are less strongly marked outside the breeding season, when the dark fringes on new feathers obscure the yellow plumage. The juvenile is much duller and less yellow than

7425-817: The north to winter in Iraq, Iran, and southern Central Asia . The yellowhammer has occurred as a vagrant in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Kuwait, Morocco, Malta, the Himalayas (winter vagrant from northern Afghanistan to central Nepal ), the Balearic Islands , Iceland, and the Faroes . Yellowhammers of the British and Irish race, E. c. caliginosa , were introduced to New Zealand by local acclimatisation societies in 1862, and soon spread over

7524-555: The outcome of the initial surveys. Freshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years acid rain , synthetic hormone analogues, halogenated hydrocarbons , greenhouse gases and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies. In ecological monitoring,

7623-541: The parents to allow the nestlings to adjust their physiology to eating seed. Predators of the yellowhammer include the sparrowhawk , northern goshawk , lesser spotted eagle , and hobby . It is not a significant host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite , although as a ground-nesting bird, its eggs and chicks are vulnerable to predation from small mammals such as mice and other rodents. Nests are also raided by crows , Eurasian jays , and Eurasian magpies . Predation accounted for more than 60% of nest failures in

7722-625: The population appears to be in a decline, the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger their vulnerability criteria. The large numbers and huge breeding range of about 12.9 million km (5 million sq mi), mean that this bunting is classified by the IUCN as being of least concern . Populations have declined in recent decades in western Europe, including the British Isles, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, and Italy. The yellowhammer

7821-578: The population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or “hot spots” are expected. The main advantages of this design are: In some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort. In stratified sampling ,

7920-410: The present time, the list of species of birds registered in the Reserve numbers 139 species. About 55% of them are Passerines. Most of the birds of the Reserve belong to migratory breeding species or to nomadic breeding species. Some species are vagrants in the Reserve and in the Moscow Region (nutcracker Nicifraga caryocatactes (L.), etc.). Birds, nesting in central parts of Russia and on the territory of

8019-470: The pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and glands . The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at

8118-492: The results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost. see also Freshwater environmental quality parameters The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and

8217-415: The same pattern. The yellowhammer is common in open areas with some shrubs or trees, and forms small flocks in winter. Its song has a rhythm like "A little bit of bread and no cheese". The song is very similar to that of its closest relative, the pine bunting , with which it interbreeds. Breeding commences mainly in April and May, with the female building a lined cup nest in a concealed location on or near

8316-444: The selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on

8415-449: The selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating

8514-402: The soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in

8613-524: The soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health. Assessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening. This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods. Soil monitoring plays

8712-406: The south of the range. Yellowhammers are monogamous and breed when aged one year. The males establish territories along hedges or woodland fringes and sing from a tree or bush, often continuing well into July or August. The male displays to the female by raising his wings and running towards her. The nest is built by the female on or near the ground, and is typically well hidden in tussocks, against

8811-419: The species pair. Where their ranges meet, the yellowhammer and pine bunting interbreed; the yellowhammer is dominant, and the hybrid zone is moving further east. There are currently 3 recognised subspecies of yellowhammer: The yellowhammer is a large bunting, 16–16.5 cm (6.3–6.5 in) long, with a 23–29.5 cm (9.1–11.6 in) wingspan; it weighs 20–36.5 g (0.71–1.29 oz). The male of

8910-535: The standard English representation of the song. The yellowhammer was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under its current scientific name. Emberiza is derived from the Old German Embritz , a bunting, and citrinella is the Italian for a small yellow bird. The English name is thought to have come from Ammer , another German word for a bunting, and

9009-644: The study of the influence of anthropogenic factors on the change in the natural state of the natural environment at the territory of the biosphere reserve and training researchers in conservation and environmental monitoring . On the territory of the Prioksko-Terrasny state nature biosphere reserve , covering 4945 ha, 134 species of birds from 14 orders (Ciconiiformes, Anseriformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Charadriiformes, Columbiformes, Cuculiformes, Strigiformes, Caprimulgiformes, Apodiformes, Coraciiformes, Piciformes, Passeriformes) had been registered by 1991. Later 5 more species were observed here. Thus, by

9108-405: The target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on

9207-414: The three subspecies using plumage features is not usually possible. Females and juveniles, especially of the pale eastern subspecies, E. c. erythrogenys , may be confused with pine buntings, but they always have a yellow tint to their plumage, a paler rufous rump, and more uniform upperparts than that species. Young and female yellowhammers can be distinguished from cirl buntings by the grey-brown rump of

9306-421: The time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, lake or ground-water. In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as

9405-440: The validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions. In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of

9504-588: The variable used to make the strata. In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids. Cressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time)

9603-513: The yellowhammer features in Chronochromie , Catalogue d'oiseaux , La fauvette des jardins and Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité , appearing in four movements of the last piece. An old legend links the yellowhammer to the devil. Its tongue was supposed to bear a drop of his blood, and the intricate pattern on the eggs was said to carry a concealed, possibly evil, message; these satanic associations sometimes led to

9702-465: Was first recorded in 1553 as yelambre . The bird family Emberizidae contains a single genus Emberiza , with around 40 members, that are confined to the Old World. Within its genus, the yellowhammer is most closely related to the pine bunting, with which it forms a superspecies ; they have at times been considered as one species. The white-capped and cirl buntings are also near relatives of

9801-546: Was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as acid rain . In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself. It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the Water Framework Directive in the European Union . Radiation monitoring involves

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