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104-511: Plancius was prosecuted under the lex Licinia de sodaliciis , which criminalised the improper use of electoral associations ( sodalitates ); the prosecution, conducted by Laterensis with the assistance of Lucius Cassius Longinus , appears to have offered little evidence that Plancius had specifically committed this crime, rather than more general electoral infractions. In the Pro Plancio , Cicero defends Plancius's character and alleges

208-471: A contentio dignitatis (a comparison of the two candidates' merits). Cicero contrasts Plancius and Laterensis, highlighting Plancius's relative social disadvantage by comparison with his prosecutor, but breaks the usual rhetorical convention of attacking his opponent's character, instead proclaiming his respect for and gratitude towards Laterensis, despite the insults that he says the latter deployed against him in his own speech. In sections 58–71, he contrasts

312-516: A "strategy of embarrassment", similar to that which he employed in the Pro Murena of 63 BCE. Cicero claims to be embarrassed at having to oppose Laterensis, given the latter's previous friendship and support towards him. As such, he refuses to reciprocate the attacks on his integrity that Laterensis had made in his own speech. Throughout the speech, Cicero emphasises the bonds of friendship and obligation ( amicitia ) between himself and

416-420: A crisis during the siege of Veii , the army urgently needed to deploy more cavalry, and "those who possessed equestrian rating but had not yet been assigned public horses" volunteered to pay for their horses out of their own pockets. By way of compensation, pay was introduced for cavalry service, as it had already been for the infantry (in 406 BC). The persons referred to in this passage were probably members of

520-458: A defunct republican ceremony, the recognitio equitum (inspection of the equites ), in which equites paraded every five years with their horses before the consuls. At some stage during the early Principate, equites acquired the right to the title "egregius" ("distinguished gentleman"), while senators were styled " clarissimus " ("most distinguished"). Beyond equites with equus publicus , Augustus' legislation permitted any Roman citizen who

624-569: A fourteenth-century manuscript from Florence, and C , a fifteenth-century manuscript held in Cambridge ;– among the most useful. Lucius Cassius Longinus (proconsul 48 BC) Lucius Cassius Longinus was the brother of the Gaius Cassius Longinus , a leading instigator in the assassination of Julius Caesar . Around 52 BC, Lucius Longinus was triumvir monetalis in 63 BC. He minted denarii referring to

728-440: A further tripling of the cavalry. Yet this was probably anachronistic, as it would have resulted in a contingent of 1,800 horse, incongruously large, compared to the heavy infantry, which was probably only 6,000 strong in the late regal period. Instead, the additional 12 centuriae were probably created at a later stage, perhaps around 400 BC, but these new units were political not military, most likely designed to admit plebeians to

832-458: A late fifth-century manuscript overwritten in the seventh century with an account of the Council of Chalcedon . The commentary is generally believed to have been assembled in the third or fourth century CE, possibly by a scholiast named Volcacius, and to be a summary of a longer commentary dating to the second century, which may itself have drawn on a first-century work. The speech was known to

936-416: A martial society. For equites , a focus of the heroic ethos was the quest for spolia opima , the stripped armour and weapons of a foe whom they had killed in single combat. There are many recorded instances. For example, Servilius Geminus Pulex , who went on to become Consul in 202 BC, was reputed to have gained spolia 23 times. The higher the rank of the opponent killed in combat, the more prestigious

1040-647: A quaestor and proquaestor in Cyrene , where Michael Alexander judges that he was "more than usually upright" in his dealings. Christopher Craig has written that Laterensis's more elevated social background would have favoured his case, as ambitus trials customarily involved comparing the social standing ( dignitas ) of the respective parties. During Cicero's exile, Laterensis had protected his relatives who remained in Italy, and made petitions for Cicero to be recalled. Like Cicero, Laterensis had been an early opponent of

1144-435: A single original, which in turn probably descends from an edition of Cicero's works made in the ninth or tenth century. T and E are generally considered the most authoritative manuscripts, though for her 1981 recension of the manuscripts of the Pro Plancio , Elżbieta Olechowska identified a total corpus of 154 manuscripts; she followed the 1911 edition of Albert Clark in considering two additional manuscripts – F ,

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1248-431: A small minority of the citizenry. (The lowest class, the proletarii , rated at under 400 drachmae , had just one vote, despite being the most numerous). As a result, the wealthiest echelon could ensure that the elected magistrates were always their own members. In turn, this ensured that the senate was dominated by the wealthy classes, as its membership was composed almost entirely of current and former magistrates. In

1352-541: A transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius. As a result of the demands of the Samnite hostilities, a normal consular army was doubled in size to two legions, making four legions raised annually overall. Roman cavalry in the field thus increased to approximately 1,200 horses. This now represented only 25% of

1456-459: A trial. The law was seen as an attack on Cicero, who fled Rome into exile shortly after its passage; Clodius in turn secured a formal proclamation of exile ( aquae et ignis interdictio ) against him in early April. Cicero's exile proved an enduring source of reputational damage to him, and he referred to it frequently in his subsequent speeches. After his return from exile in 57 BCE, Cicero's legal work largely consisted of defending allies of

1560-417: A twofold argument that Laterensis cannot prove the allegations of misconduct against Plancius, and that Laterensis's defeat can be easily explained without any suggestion of electoral irregularity. Cicero accepts that Plancius had made use of sodalitates (political associations), but argued that they were merely groups of friends, aimed at mutual support rather than to improperly influence the election. In

1664-463: Is also from this period that every Roman army that took the field was regularly accompanied by at least as many troops supplied by the socii (Rome's Italian military confederates, often referred to as "Latin allies"). Each legion would be matched by a confederate ala (literally: "wing"), a formation that contained roughly the same number of infantry as a legion, but three times the number of horses (900). Legionary cavalry also probably underwent

1768-542: Is correct, it implies that the cavalry was exclusively patrician (and therefore hereditary) in the regal period. (However, Cornell considers the evidence tenuous). It is widely accepted that the Roman monarchy was overthrown by a patrician coup, probably provoked by the Tarquin dynasty 's populist policies in favour of the plebeian class. Alfoldi suggests that the coup was carried out by the celeres themselves. According to

1872-428: Is itself the main source of evidence for the terms of the lex Licinia de sodaliciis . The lex Licinia specifically criminalised organised bribery through the use of associations ( sodalicia ) of supporters, categorising such conduct as ambitus infinitus ('aggravated ambitus '). It also specified that the jury would be selected in a manner advantageous to the prosecution: while most trials allowed both

1976-432: Is that "support for Plancius is support for Cicero; tears shed for Plancius are tears for Cicero ... acquittal for Plancius is acquittal for Cicero". On the charges of ambitus , Taylor judges that "the arguments are specious and the case is obviously weak". Andrew Riggsby has characterised Cicero's primary strategy as attempting to establish, separate from the precise legal matters at hand, that Plancius's conduct fitted

2080-594: The Pro Plancio . Longinus was made a proconsul by Caesar 's appointment in 48 BC, during the civil war . He occupied Thessaly , but was forced by Metellus Scipio to retreat, after which he joined Calvisius Sabinus in Aetolia . He was a tribune of the plebs in 44 BC, a year in which the people's tribunes were exceptionally numerous and his brother held the praetorship . Along with his fellow tribunes Tiberius Canutius and Decimus Carfulenus , L. Cassius

2184-454: The Pro Plancio as "a thoroughly artistic handling of a somewhat ordinary theme". Cicero twice uses the device of sermocinatio , an imagined dialogue with an interlocutor, following the practice of contemporary rhetoricians in using it to add interest and persuasive power to his speech. In section 59, Cicero quotes the tragedy Atreus by the early Latin playwright Lucius Accius , describing his own fatherly mentorship of his son, Cicero

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2288-487: The Pro Plancio as similar to the Pro Sestio , delivered by Cicero in 56 BCE, in that both speeches aim to persuade by establishing the good character ( ethos ) of Cicero, and by extension of his client. Cicero consistently draws parallels between himself and Plancius, and between their respective political careers, in what May calls "patron–client identification". Craig has described Cicero's approach as

2392-408: The exordium , Cicero expresses his grief that Plancius has been accused, claiming that the latter's support for him during his exile brought the case about by influencing patriotic Romans to vote for him, and bemoans the conflicting obligations he feels towards Plancius and Laterensis on account of each party's good qualities and previous support for him. The first part of the argumentatio forms

2496-612: The lex Licinia to benefit from its distinctive jury-selection procedure. Plancius's case was the fourth that Cicero had defended on a charge de sodaliciis , after those of Gaius Messius and Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus in 54 and of Marcus Cispius earlier in 46. Taylor has characterised the prosecution as politically-motivated revenge: Laterensis was an ally of Cato the Younger , who had been elected as praetor for 54 and whose ally, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , had been elected consul. Catonian candidates had been defeated in

2600-488: The praefecti praetorio (commanders of the Praetorian Guard) who also acted as the emperor's chiefs of military staff. There were normally two of these, but at times irregular appointments resulted in just a single incumbent or even three at the same time. Equestrians also provided the praefecti classis (admirals commanding) of the two main imperial fleets at Misenum in the bay of Naples and at Ravenna on

2704-502: The praefectus urbi (prefect of the city of Rome), who controlled the cohortes urbanae (public order battalions), the only fully armed force in the city apart from the Praetorian Guard. Nevertheless, a wide range of senior administrative and military posts were created and reserved for equestrians by Augustus, though most ranked below the senatorial posts. In the imperial administration, equestrian posts included that of

2808-551: The Roman Forum . In the speech, Cicero attempted to defend Gnaeus Plancius  [ la ] against a charge of electoral malpractice ( ambitus ) levelled by Marcus Iuventius Laterensis  [ la ] , whom Plancius had defeated in elections for the post of curule aedile . Plancius was defended by Cicero, probably in addition to Quintus Hortensius . Laterensis was, in turn, assisted by Lucius Cassius Longinus . As consul in 63 BCE, Cicero had revealed

2912-504: The Roman magistrates , the executive officers of the state: consuls, praetors , aediles and quaestors . In the assembly, the citizen body was divided into 193 centuriae , or voting constituencies. Of these, 18 were allocated to equites (including patricians) and a further 80 to the first class of commoners, securing an absolute majority of the votes (98 out of 193) for the wealthiest echelon of society, although it constituted only

3016-657: The Samnite League led to the transformation of the Roman army from the Greek-style hoplite phalanx that it was in the early period, to the Italian-style manipular army described by Polybius. It is believed that the Romans copied the manipular structure from their enemies the Samnites, learning through hard experience its greater flexibility and effectiveness in the mountainous terrain of central Italy. It

3120-530: The Samnite Wars obliged Rome to double the normal annual military levy from two to four legions, doubling the cavalry levy from 600 to 1,200 horses. Legionary cavalry started to recruit wealthier citizens from outside the 18 centuriae . These new recruits came from the first class of commoners in the Centuriate Assembly organisation, and were not granted the same privileges. By the time of

3224-487: The Second Punic War (218–202 BC), all the members of the first class of commoners were required to serve as cavalrymen. The presence of equites in the Roman cavalry diminished steadily in the period 200–88 BC as only equites could serve as the army's senior officers; as the number of legions proliferated fewer were available for ordinary cavalry service. After c. 88 BC, equites were no longer drafted into

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3328-430: The praefecti (commanders) of the imperial army's auxiliary regiments and five of the six tribuni militum (senior staff officers) in each legion. The standard equestrian officer progression was known as the " tres militiae " ("three services"): praefectus of a cohors (auxiliary infantry regiment), followed by tribunus militum in a legion, and finally praefectus of an ala (auxiliary cavalry regiment). From

3432-585: The princeps senatus (Leader of the Senate), a position reserved for patricians. In addition, patricians monopolized certain priesthoods and continued to enjoy enormous prestige. The period following the end of the Latin War (340–338 BC) and of the Samnite Wars (343–290) saw the transformation of the Roman Republic from a powerful but beleaguered city-state into the hegemonic power of

3536-497: The spolia , and none more so than spolia duci hostium detracta , spoils taken from an enemy leader himself. Many equites attempted to gain such an honour, but very few succeeded for the reason that enemy leaders were always surrounded by large numbers of elite bodyguards. One successful attempt, but with a tragic twist, was that of the decurion Titus Manlius Torquatus in 340 BC during the Latin War. Despite strict orders from

3640-455: The " polybian " army of the mid-republic (338 – 88 BC), equites held the exclusive right to serve as senior officers of the army. These were the six tribuni militum in each legion who were elected by the comitia at the start of each campaigning season and took turns to command the legion in pairs; the praefecti sociorum , commanders of the Italian confederate alae , who were appointed by

3744-401: The 12 new centuriae who were entitled to public horses, but temporarily waived that privilege. Mommsen, however, argues that the passage refers to members of the first class of commoners being admitted to cavalry service in 403 BC for the first time as an emergency measure. If so, this group may be the original so-called equites equo privato , a rank that is attested throughout the history of

3848-635: The 1795 French invasion of Bavaria , but rediscovered in Paris by Johann Georg Baiter in 1853. The second, known as the Codex Erfurtensis ( E ) or Codex Thuringicus , after its previous locations in Erfurt and in Thuringia , dates to the fifteenth or sixteenth century and collates Ciceronian texts from various sources. Both T and E probably derive their texts of the Pro Plancio from

3952-512: The Fraccaro interpretation, when the Roman monarchy was replaced with two annually elected praetores (later called "consuls"), the royal army was divided equally between them for campaigning purposes, which, if true, explains why Polybius later said that a legion's cavalry contingent was 300 strong. The 12 additional centuriae ascribed by Livy to Servius Tullius were, in reality, probably formed around 400 BC. In 403 BC, according to Livy, in

4056-581: The Italian Adriatic coast. The command of Rome's fire brigade and minor constabulary, the vigiles , was likewise reserved for equites . Not all equites followed the conventional career-path. Those equestrians who specialised in a legal or administrative career, providing judges ( iudices ) in Rome's law courts and state secretaries in the imperial government, were granted dispensation from military service by Emperor Hadrian (r. AD 117–138). At

4160-586: The Italian peninsula. This was accompanied by profound changes in its constitution and army . Internally, the critical development was the emergence of the Senate as the all-powerful organ of state. By 280 BC, the Senate had assumed total control of state taxation, expenditure, declarations of war, treaties, raising of legions, establishing colonies and religious affairs, in other words, of virtually all political power. From an ad hoc group of advisors appointed by

4264-451: The Order of Knights. Apparently, equites were originally provided with a sum of money by the state to purchase a horse for military service and for its fodder. This was known as an equus publicus . Theodor Mommsen argues that the royal cavalry was drawn exclusively from the ranks of the patricians ( patricii ), the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary. Apart from

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4368-623: The Roman state. The younger Plancius was a supporter of Pompey the Great. When the exiled Cicero arrived at Dyrrachium in western Greece late in April 58 BCE, Plancius was serving as a quaestor (a junior financial official) on the staff of Lucius Appuleius Saturninus , the governor of Macedonia . Plancius travelled to meet Cicero, and took him to stay in his official residence ( quaestorium ) in Thessalonica , where Cicero remained until

4472-418: The Younger ), but in practice this was much more difficult than elevation from commoner to equestrian rank. To join the upper order, not only was the candidate required to meet the minimum property requirement of 250,000 denarii , but also had to be elected a member of the Senate. There were two routes for this, both controlled by the emperor: In public service, equites equo publico had their own version of

4576-590: The Younger . Elsewhere in the speech, he makes possible allusions to two other works of early Latin literature: the Annales , a historical epic poem by Ennius , and the Satires of Gaius Lucilius . He also alludes to the Crito , a philosophical dialogue by Plato , contrasting the philosopher Socrates 's absolute submission to the rule of law in that dialogue with what he alleges to be Laterensis's refusal to accept

4680-503: The army's total cavalry contingent, the rest being supplied by the Italian confederates. A legion's modest cavalry share of 7% of its 4,500 total strength was thus increased to 12% in a confederate army, comparable with (or higher than) any other forces in Italy except the Gauls and also similar to those in Greek armies such as Pyrrhus's. Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution based on

4784-401: The campaign, and the election repeated in 54: Plancius was again elected, alongside Aulus Plautius . His election as aedile made Plancius the first in his family to enter the senate . It is debated whether Plancius served as aedile in 55 BCE, or was due to begin his year of office when prosecuted in 54. Marcus Iuventius Laterensis was from an ancient noble family of Rome. He had served as

4888-497: The character of a unified city-state (as opposed to a number of separate hilltop settlements) until c. 625   BC. Roman tradition relates that the Order of Knights was founded by Romulus, who supposedly established a cavalry regiment of 300 men called the Celeres ("Swift Squadron") to act as his personal escort, with each of the three Roman "tribes" (actually voting constituencies) supplying 100 horses. This cavalry regiment

4992-459: The characters of Plancius, Laterensis and Cassius, Laterensis's junior partner ( subscriptor ), claiming that Cassius lacks both Plancius's moral uprightness and Laterensis's rhetorical skill. From section 86 onwards, Cicero reminds the jury of Plancius's service to him, and argues that to attack Plancius is therefore to attack him, and justifies his own political and personal actions to assert his own good character. As May puts it, Cicero's argument

5096-452: The charges against Plancius, but with asserting his personal merits and those of Cicero himself. The speech was described by James Smith Reid as "a thoroughly artistic handling of a somewhat ordinary theme". Cicero makes reference to works of early Latin literature, such as the poetry of Ennius , and to the philosopher Plato 's Crito , and makes extensive use of the rhetorical technique of sermocinatio . Cicero edited and published

5200-424: The chief financial officers (also called procuratores Augusti ) of the imperial provinces, and the deputy financial officers of senatorial provinces. At Rome, equestrians filled numerous senior administrative posts such as the emperor's secretaries of state (from the time of Claudius, e.g. correspondence and treasury) and the praefecti annonae (director of grain supplies). In the military, equestrians provided

5304-484: The common people of the provinces, as unscrupulous publicani often sought to maximise their profit by demanding a much higher rates of tax than originally set by the government. The provincial governors whose duty it was to curb illegal demands were often bribed into acquiescence by the publicani . The system also led to political conflict between equites publicani and the majority of their fellow- equites , especially senators, who as large landowners wanted to minimise

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5408-477: The conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline), a failed consular candidate who had attempted to seize power in a coup. On 5 December of that year, Cicero had Catiline's supporters in Rome executed without trial, a decision which was widely condemned. Cicero's political enemy, Publius Clodius Pulcher , passed a law as tribune in February 58 BCE condemning anyone who had executed Roman citizens without

5512-487: The consuls (one of whom was his own father) not to engage the enemy, Manlius could not resist accepting a personal challenge from the commander of the Tusculan cavalry, which his squadron encountered while on reconnaissance. There ensued a fiercely contested joust with the opposing squadrons as spectators. Manlius won, spearing his adversary after the latter was thrown by his horse. But when the triumphant young man presented

5616-487: The consuls, the Senate had become a permanent body of around 300 life peers who, as largely former Roman magistrates , boasted enormous experience and influence. At the same time, the political unification of the Latin nation, under Roman rule after 338 BC, gave Rome a populous regional base from which to launch its wars of aggression against its neighbours. The gruelling contest for Italian hegemony that Rome fought against

5720-464: The consuls; and the three decurions that led each squadron ( turma ) of legionary cavalry (a total of 30 decurions per legion). As their name implies, equites were liable to cavalry service in the legion of the mid-republic. They originally provided a legion's entire cavalry contingent, although from an early stage (probably from c. 400 and not later than c. 300 BC), when equestrian numbers had become insufficient, large numbers of young men from

5824-474: The famous trial of the vestal virgins of 114–113 BC, which was prosecuted by his ancestor Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravilla . In 54 BC, he was the junior co-prosecutor ( subscriptor ) to Marcus Iuventius Laterensis  [ la ] in the trial of Gnaeus Plancius  [ la ] for electoral malpractice ( ambitus ). Plancius was defenced by Cicero , who accused Longinus of incompetence, immorality and inexperience in his defence speech,

5928-428: The first class of commoners were regularly volunteering for the service, which was considered more glamorous than the infantry. The cavalry role of equites dwindled after the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), as the number of equestrians became insufficient to provide the senior officers of the army and general cavalrymen as well. Equites became exclusively an officer-class, with the first class of commoners providing

6032-650: The following November, at which point Plancius was soon to return to Rome following the appointment of a new governor, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus . As Cicero later recounted their meeting in the Pro Plancio , Plancius took off his official insignia, put on mourning garb, and embraced Cicero, too overcome by tears to speak. Plancius was subsequently elected as a plebeian tribune in 56 BCE. He then successfully ran for curule aedile in 55 BCE, in an election that Lily Ross Taylor has described as "a travesty of Roman free institutions". The election results were declared void, following corruption and violence during

6136-548: The founder of the Principate, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD) and his successors until 312. Senators' sons and further descendants technically retained equestrian rank unless and until they won a seat in the Senate. But Talbert argues that Augustus established the existing senatorial elite as a separate and superior order (ordo senatorius) to the equites for the first time. The evidence for this includes: A family's senatorial status depended not only on continuing to match

6240-465: The fourteenth-century humanist Petrarch , and frequently attested after his death. Around forty manuscripts of the Pro Plancio are known, though in 1897 H. W. Auden judged that all but two were below usable quality. The older of the two manuscripts was written in the eleventh century, and is known by the siglum T after Tegernsee Abbey in Bavaria , where it was discovered. T was lost during

6344-445: The governorship ( praefectus Augusti ) of the province of Egypt , which was considered the most prestigious of all the posts open to equites , often the culmination of a long and distinguished career serving the state. In addition, equites were appointed to the governorship ( procurator Augusti ) of some smaller provinces and sub-provinces e.g. Judaea , whose governor was subordinate to the governor of Syria . Equestrians were also

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6448-435: The higher wealth qualification, but on their leading member holding a seat in the Senate. Failing either condition, the family would revert to ordinary knightly status. Although sons of sitting senators frequently won seats in the Senate, this was by no means guaranteed, as candidates often outnumbered the 20 seats available each year, leading to intense competition. As regards the equestrian order, Augustus apparently abolished

6552-422: The imperial government. There was a clear division between jobs reserved for senators (the most senior) and those reserved for non-senatorial equites . But the career structure of both groups was broadly similar: a period of junior administrative posts in Rome or Roman Italy , followed by a period (normally a decade) of military service as a senior army officer, followed by senior administrative or military posts in

6656-459: The late Republican era, the collection of most taxes was contracted out to private individuals or companies by competitive tender, with the contract for each province awarded to the publicanus who bid the highest advance to the state treasury on the estimated tax-take of the province. The publicanus would then attempt to recoup his advance, with the right to retain any surplus collected as his profit. This system frequently resulted in extortion from

6760-443: The later republican period, Roman senators and their offspring became an unofficial elite within the equestrian order. Under Augustus , the senatorial elite was given formal status (as the ordo senatorius ) with a higher wealth threshold (250,000 denarii , or the pay of 1,100 legionaries) and superior rank and privileges to ordinary equites . During the Principate, equites filled the senior administrative and military posts of

6864-463: The latter's military defeat of Pompey . Cicero wrote to his brother, Quintus , on 28 September 54 BCE that he was sending him a copy of the Pro Plancio , along with the Pro Scauro , at Quintus's request. In December of the same year, Cicero drew on the arguments he had made in the Pro Plancio in a letter to Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther , defending his collaboration with

6968-465: The legionary cavalry, although they remained technically liable to such service throughout the Principate era (to 284 AD). They continued to supply the senior officers of the army throughout the Principate. With the exception of the purely hereditary patricians, the equites were originally defined by a property threshold. The rank was passed from father to son, although members of the order who at

7072-486: The legionary cavalry. From the earliest times and throughout the Republican period, Roman equites subscribed, in their role as Roman cavalrymen, to an ethos of personal heroism and glory. This was motivated by the desire to justify their privileged status to the lower classes that provided the infantry ranks, to enhance the renown of their family name, and to augment their chances of subsequent political advancement in

7176-408: The legitimacy of his election, claiming that Laterensis had made his prosecution under the lex Licinia in order to benefit from its unusual process of jury selection, which advantaged the prosecution. Throughout the speech, Cicero emphasises his twofold friendship with Laterensis and Plancius, who had both assisted him during a period of exile in 58–57 BCE. The bulk of the speech deals not with

7280-510: The manuals of rhetoric published during the Roman period and late antiquity. Giuseppe La Bua suggests that it may have been seen as a school-level text, and that it may have been read out of biographical interest in Cicero as well as for its perceived rhetorical quality. An ancient commentary ( scholia ) on the Pro Plancio was preserved in the Bobbio palimpsest ( Codex Ambrosianus ),

7384-475: The norms of Roman society: in Riggsby's formulation, that he was "one of us". He characterises Cicero's narrative of Plancius's life and career, as emphasising the latter's pietas , particularly towards Cicero himself. Cicero also claimed that Plancius was popular among and supported by citizens of his native Atina, which he used as evidence of Plancius's good character and upstanding status. James M. May sees

7488-422: The order. Imperial equites were thus divided into two tiers: a few thousand mainly Italian equites equo publico , members of the order eligible to hold the public offices reserved for the equites ; and a much larger group of wealthy Italians and provincials (estimated at 25,000 in the 2nd century) of equestrian status but outside the order. Equestrians could in turn be elevated to senatorial rank (e.g., Pliny

7592-464: The popular verdict against his election. It is unknown for certain whether Plancius was acquitted or convicted, though often stated that Cicero's defence was successful. Cicero wrote two letters to Plancius in 46 BCE, when the latter was living on the Greek island of Corcyra ; this would be consistent with a guilty verdict and the consequent punishment of exile, but Plancius may equally have been exiled for his support of Pompey by Julius Caesar after

7696-624: The produce of their own landed estates but too small to conduct large-scale sea transportation. From this time onwards, senatorial families mostly invested their capital in land. All other equestrians remained free to invest their wealth, greatly increased by the growth of Rome's overseas empire after the Second Punic War, in large-scale commercial enterprises including mining and industry, as well as land. Equestrians became especially prominent in tax farming and, by 100 BC, owned virtually all tax-farming companies ( publicani ). During

7800-479: The prosecutor and defender to veto any juror they considered unsuitable, trials under the lex Licinia required the prosecutor to nominate four voting tribes from which the jurors would be chosen, from which the defence could eliminate one. Laterensis's arguments appear to have generally been more appropriate to a trial for conventional ambitus than one de sodaliciis ('concerning sodalicia '), and Cicero argued that he had only made his prosecution under

7904-530: The prosecutor, Laterensis. Cicero had previously used this tactic extensively in three speeches, and would do so again in the Pro Ligario of 46 BCE, but it is not attested elsewhere in Roman oratory or in Greek rhetorical manuals. Craig suggests that it was an invention of Roman orators, perhaps of Cicero himself. Craig has called Cicero's response to Laterensis's attacks on his character "both ingenious and unique". In 1882, James Smith Reid described

8008-462: The provinces (especially the Balkan provinces) who displaced the Italian aristocrats in the top military posts, and under Diocletian (ruled 284–305) from the top civilian positions also. This effectively reduced the Italian aristocracy to an idle, but immensely wealthy, group of landowners. During the 4th century, the status of equites was debased to insignificance by excessive grants of the rank. At

8112-404: The provinces. Senators and equites formed a tiny elite of under 10,000 members who monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of about 60 million inhabitants. During the 3rd century AD, power shifted from the Italian aristocracy to a class of equites who had earned their membership by distinguished military service, often rising from the ranks: career military officers from

8216-417: The rank of equo privato , according all its members equo publico status. In addition, Augustus organised the order in a quasi-military fashion, with members enrolled into six turmae (notional cavalry squadrons). The order's governing body were the seviri ("Committee of Six"), composed of the "commanders" of the turmae . In an attempt to foster an esprit de corps amongst the equites , Augustus revived

8320-401: The regular quinquennial (every five years) census no longer met the property requirement were usually removed from the order's rolls by the Roman censors. In the late republic, the property threshold stood at 50,000 denarii and was doubled to 100,000 by the emperor Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD) – roughly the equivalent to the annual salaries of 450 contemporary legionaries. In

8424-533: The republic (in contrast to equites equo publico ). However, due to a lack of evidence, the origins and definition of equo privato equites remain obscure. It is widely agreed that the 12 new centuriae were open to non-patricians. Thus, from this date if not earlier, not all equites were patricians. The patricians, as a closed hereditary caste, steadily diminished in numbers over the centuries, as families died out. Around 450 BC, there are some 50 patrician gentes (clans) recorded, whereas just 14 remained at

8528-407: The right shoulder was visible (as opposed to the broad stripe worn by senators. ) equites bore the title eques Romanus , were entitled to wear an anulus aureus (gold ring) on their left hand, and, from 67 BC, enjoyed privileged seats at games and public functions (just behind those reserved for senators). The Senate as a body was formed of sitting senators, whose number was held at around 600 by

8632-495: The ruling triumvirs and his own personal friends and allies; he defended his former pupil Marcus Caelius Rufus against a charge of murder in 56. Under the influence of the triumvirs, he had also defended his former enemies Publius Vatinius (in August 54 BCE) and Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (between July and September), which weakened his prestige and sparked attacks on his integrity: Luca Grillo has suggested these cases as

8736-590: The same time the ranks of senators were swollen to over 4,000 by the establishment of the Byzantine Senate (a second senate in Constantinople ) and the tripling of the membership of both senates. The senatorial order of the 4th century was thus the equivalent of the equestrian order of the Principate. According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by its first king, Romulus , in 753 BC. However, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome did not acquire

8840-652: The second of the property-based classes of ancient Rome , ranking below the senatorial class . A member of the equestrian order was known as an eques ( Latin: [ˈɛ.kʷɛs] ). During the Roman Kingdom and the first century of the Roman Republic , legionary cavalry was recruited exclusively from the ranks of the patricians , who were expected to provide six centuriae (hundred) of cavalry (300 horses for each consular legion). Around 400   BC, 12 more centuriae of cavalry were established and these included non-patricians ( plebeians ). Around 300 BC

8944-465: The senatorial cursus honorum , or conventional career-path, which typically combined military and administrative posts. After an initial period of a few years in local government in their home regions as administrators (local aediles or duumviri ) or as priests ( augures ), equites were required to serve as military officers for about 10 years before they would be appointed to senior administrative or military posts. Equestrians exclusively provided

9048-483: The source of the poet Catullus 's double-edged comment that Cicero was "the best defender of anybody". Gnaeus Plancius was a member of the equestrian class , the son of a tax collector ( publicanus ) from the Lucanian town of Atina . In 61–60 BCE, Cicero had represented an association ( societas ) of tax-collectors, including Plancius's father, in their attempt to reduce their financial obligations to

9152-499: The sovereignty of the people, the Roman Republic was in reality a classic oligarchy , in which political power was monopolised by the richest social echelon. Probably by 300 BC, the centuriate organisation of the Roman citizen body for political purposes achieved the evolved form described by Polybius and Livy. The comitia centuriata was the most powerful people's assembly, as it promulgated Roman laws and annually elected

9256-470: The speech; it is known from sporadic references in classical literature and surviving papyrus manuscripts, but was relatively neglected by ancient rhetoricians in comparison to the rest of Cicero's speeches. However, it was widely copied in manuscripts from the early modern period, and was known to the fourteenth-century humanist Petrarch . The Pro Plancio was delivered in September 54 BCE, in

9360-519: The spoils to his father, the latter ordered his son's immediate execution for disobeying orders. "Orders of Manlius" ( Manliana imperia ) became a proverbial army term for orders that must on no account be disregarded. In 218 BC, the lex Claudia restricted the commercial activity of senators and their sons, on the grounds that it was incompatible with their status. Senators were prohibited from owning ships of greater capacity than 300 amphorae (about seven tonnes) – this being judged sufficient to carry

9464-412: The tax on land outside Italy ( tributum solis ), which was the main source of state revenue. This system was terminated by the first Roman emperor, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD), who transferred responsibility for tax collection from the publicani to provincial local authorities ( civitates peregrinae ). Although the latter also frequently employed private companies to collect their tax quotas, it

9568-524: The time of Julius Caesar (dictator of Rome 48–44 BC), whose own Iulii clan was patrician. In contrast, the ranks of equites , although also hereditary (in the male line), were open to new entrants who met the property requirement and who satisfied the Roman censors that they were suitable for membership. As a consequence, patricians rapidly became only a small minority of the equestrian order. However, patricians retained political influence greatly out of proportion with their numbers. Until 172 BC, one of

9672-410: The time of Hadrian, a fourth militia was added for exceptionally gifted officers, commander of an ala milliaria (double-strength ala ). Each post was held for three to four years. Most of the top posts in the imperial administration were reserved for senators, who provided the governors of the larger provinces (except Egypt), the legati legionis (legion commanders) of all legions outside Egypt, and

9776-449: The traditional association of the aristocracy with horsemanship, the evidence for this view is the fact that, during the republic, six centuriae (voting constituencies) of equites in the comitia centuriata (electoral assembly) retained the names of the original six royal cavalry centuriae . These are very likely the " centuriae of patrician nobles" in the comitia mentioned by the lexicologist Sextus Pompeius Festus . If this view

9880-579: The trial was held around the time of the ludi Romani , which took place in late August or early September. The prosecution was made under the lex Licinia de sodaliciis , a law put forward by the triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus in 55 BCE. As neither the prosecution speech against Plancius nor the text of the relevant, the precise accusations made against Plancius are uncertain: Laterensis may have accused Plancius of forming an illicit coalition to secure his election, of giving or receiving bribes, or of several of these offences. The Pro Plancio

9984-447: The trial. Structurally, the speech divides into three unequal parts: an introductory exordium (sections 1–6a), a development of the speech's argumentation ( argumentatio ; sections 6b–100) and a concluding peroratio (sections 101–104). The speech largely focuses on Cicero, rather than Plancius or the charges against him. Only around a fifth deals with the charge of sodalicia directly. In respect of this, Cicero makes

10088-402: The triumvirs – he had withdrawn his candidacy for tribune in 59 BCE, because those elected were obliged to swear to uphold the laws of Julius Caesar . However, unlike Cicero, Laterensis had maintained this opposition: he used Cicero's change of sides to attack the latter's integrity during Plancius's case. Laterensis made the prosecution a few weeks after the election of 54 BCE:

10192-469: The triumvirs. Parts of the Pro Plancio are preserved on a fifth-century parchment fragment from Hermopolis Magna in Egypt. The second-century author Aulus Gellius mentions it twice in his Attic Nights , a miscellany of notes on various scholarly topics, to illustrate Cicero's use of rhetoric and grammar. Unlike most of the surviving speeches of Cicero, the Pro Plancio was not used or quoted in

10296-400: The two consuls elected each year had to be a patrician. In addition, patricians may have retained their original six centuriae , which gave them a third of the total voting-power of the equites , even though they constituted only a tiny minority of the order by 200 BC. Patricians also enjoyed official precedence, such as the right to speak first in senatorial debates, which were initiated by

10400-468: The voided elections of 55, partly due to manoeuvring from the triumvirs Pompey and Caesar . Cicero edited his speeches, including the Pro Plancio , before publication, and they were subsequently affected by losses of text in the transmitted manuscripts. Andrew Lintott has suggested, following an argument presented by Jules Humbert in 1925, that the transmitted text of the speech may combine parts of different orations given by Cicero at different points in

10504-430: Was assessed in an official census as meeting the property requirement of 100,000 denarii to use the title of eques and wear the narrow-striped tunic and gold ring. But such "property-qualified equites " were not apparently admitted to the ordo equester itself, but simply enjoyed equestrian status. Only those granted an equus publicus by the emperor (or who inherited the status from their fathers) were enrolled in

10608-518: Was excluded from the important meeting of the Roman senate held November 28 to reassign several provinces for the following year. A bill enabling Caesar to add new families to the patriciate was probably sponsored by him rather than his brother as praetor. Equites The equites ( / ˈ ɛ k w ɪ t iː z / ; lit.   ' horse ' or ' cavalrymen ' , though sometimes referred to as " knights " in English) constituted

10712-412: Was in their own interests to curb extortion. During the imperial era, tax collectors were generally paid an agreed percentage of the amount collected. equites publicani became prominent in banking activities such as money-lending and money-changing. The official dress of equestrians was the tunica angusticlavia (narrow-striped tunic), worn underneath the toga , in such a manner that the stripe over

10816-424: Was supposedly doubled in size to 600 men by King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (traditional dates 616–578 BC). That the cavalry was increased to 600 during the regal era is plausible, as in the early republic the cavalry fielded remained 600-strong (two legions with 300 horses each). However, according to Livy, King Servius Tullius (traditional reign-dates 578–535 BC) established a further 12 centuriae of equites ,

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