The Samnites ( Oscan : Safineis ) were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium , which is located in modern inland Abruzzo , Molise , and Campania in south-central Italy .
112-704: An Oscan-speaking people , who originated as an offshoot of the Sabines , they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini , Caudini , Caraceni , and Pentri . Ancient Greek historians considered the Umbri as the ancestors of the Samnites. Their migration was in a southward direction, according to the rite of ver sacrum . Although allied together against the Gauls in 354 BC, they later became enemies of
224-474: A distinction between men , who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled". Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying
336-465: A legio linteata ("linen legion"); this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure. Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome. Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through
448-464: A remains in most positions Long ā remains in an initial or medial position. Final ā starts to sound similar to [ɔː] so that it is written ú or, rarely, u . Short e "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes u or i , and before another vowel, e raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written í . Long ē similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written í or íí . Short i becomes written í . Long ī
560-493: A status symbol . There were three types of triple-disc cuirasses. The first used bronze to fill the space between the three identical discs. Small rings were attached to this bronze, and side straps were used to hold the armor together. Shoulder straps were also fastened to these small rings. The second type utilized an edge to outline the discs, while the third used plates to depict the heads of religious figures such as Athena or demons . All three types were constructed by placing
672-626: A wolf , and the Picentes claimed to have been guided by a woodpecker . Alternatively, the Samnites may have been connected to Sparta . This legend is possibly apocryphal . It might have been created by the Greeks for an alliance with the Samnites, or to include the Italic peoples within their worldview, and possibly to highlight similarities between the Samnites and Spartans. Archaeological evidence shows that Samnite civilization likely developed from
784-576: A Roman invasion, the Samnites agreed to sign a peace treaty . There are two accounts of the cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the Vestini and wars against Fregellae and Paleopolis . Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Conflict may have also emerged because
896-712: A battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates . After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed. As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as dictator of Rome he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were Latinized and assimilated into
1008-588: A continuation of ancient dialects of Greek. Oscan's usage declined following the Social War . Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage. One piece of evidence that supports the colloquial usage of the language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of Pompeii that were reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 CE , which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79 CE. Other scholars argue that this
1120-465: A disc below and between two upper discs forming a triangular shape. Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the abdomen . Samnite belts were made by heating up tin alloys at 800 degrees Celsius . Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a temperature ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. Hammers and abrasives were used to grind
1232-614: A form of the name of the Sabines , who were Umbrians . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh -, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . Some archaeologists believe Safin refers to all the people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of Molise . It could also be an adjective used to describe
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#17327660945931344-675: A group of Sabine exiles . According to this account, during either a famine , or as part of an attempt to end a war with the Umbrians , the Sabines vowed to hold a Ver Sacrum . As part of this ritual, all things produced that year were sacrificed , including babies . Once these babies had reached adulthood they were exiled, and then guided by a bull to their new homeland . Upon reaching this land they sacrificed this bull to Mars . Other Samnite tribes claimed to have been guided by different animals. The Hirpini claimed they were guided by
1456-818: A group of people. It appears on graves near Abruzzo from the 5th century, as well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea . The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War . Safin would go through a series of changes culminating in Safinim , the Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the Safin people . " This became the word for the Samnite people, Safineis . as well as other words in Greek such as Saini , Saineis , Samnītēs, Sabellī, and Saunìtai . These terms likely originated in
1568-538: A large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men. Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of
1680-485: A long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's hilt . Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. Maces were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a socket . Axes were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power. There
1792-457: A mosaic floor. The oppus tessellatum style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, warriors , or Greek subjects. Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense. Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondate there
1904-550: A negative trend until 2001. Between 1991 (330,900 inhabitants) and 2001 (320,601 inhabitants), the population of the region decreased by 3.1%; since 2001 the population remained stable. The region is home to two main ethnic minorities: the Molisan Croats (20,000 people who speak an old Dalmatian dialect of Croatian alongside Italian), and those who speak the Arbëresh dialect of Albanian in five towns of "basso Molise" in
2016-402: A particular year would be exiled or offered to the gods. The description of these practices may have been fabricated by Livy for propaganda purposes. Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life. Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury
2128-471: A pottery stamp is: Detfri (slave) of Herennis Sattis signed in planta pedis. Throughout the Iron Age Samnium was ruled by chieftains and aristocrats who used funerary displays to flaunt their wealth. During the early third and fourth centuries, the Samnite political system developed into an organization focused on rural settlements led by magistrates. The Samnite settlements, or vici , were at
2240-468: A preexisting Italian culture. After the Etruscans abandoned Campania in the 5th century , the Samnites conquered the region. Cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were conquered. It is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why. They could have wanted its fertile soil , or to alleviate overpopulation . This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which
2352-652: A simple but tasty sauce of aromatic herbs. Zuppa di pesce, a fish stew, is a specialty of Termoli . The cheeses produced in Molise are not very different from those produced in Abruzzo. The more common ones are Burrino and Manteca, soft, buttery cow's-milk cheeses; Pecorino, sheep's-milk cheese, served young and soft or aged and hard, called also "Maciuocco" in Molise; Scamorza, bland cow's-milk cheese, often served grilled; and Caciocavallo , sheep's-milk cheese. Sweets and desserts have an ancient tradition here and are linked to
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#17327660945932464-445: A single unit. Due to corroborating archaeological evidence , other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story. Samnite soldiers wore a small single disc breastplate . This breastplate, called the kardiophylax consisted of straps that passed around the shoulders, chest, and back, and attached around points. Although the triple-disc cuirass offered more protection, this armor continued to be used as
2576-494: A soldier ran out of projectiles, they would throw rocks off the ground. Alongside spears, soldiers would use swords or even hand-to-hand combat . Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the Capestrano Warrior showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of Bronze Age sword called an antenna sword . Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the short sword . Short swords were carried using
2688-455: A synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of
2800-526: A tradeable good, and as a source of food . Transhumance , or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer to winter pastures , was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth. Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium. During the fifth and fourth centuries BC , an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and urban development . This change
2912-459: A variety of ham is available, such as smoked prosciutto . Frequently, the sausages are enjoyed with polenta . Main dishes of the region include: Common second dishes (often meat and vegetable dishes) are: Typical vegetable dishes may include: Fish dishes include red mullet soup, and spaghetti with cuttlefish . Trout from the Biferno river is notable for its flavor, and is cooked with
3024-433: Is Campobasso at 2,909 km , while the smaller is Isernia at 1,529 km . The province of Campobasso is the more densely populated of the two provinces, with 79.4 inhabitants per km , whereas Isernia registers 58.9 inhabitants per km . At the end of 2008 the most populous towns were Campobasso (51,247 inhabitants), Termoli (32,420) and Isernia (21,811). In the period 1951–71, large-scale emigration to other countries of
3136-531: Is a region of Southern Italy . Until 1963, it formed part of the region of Abruzzi e Molise together with Abruzzo . The split, which did not become effective until 1970, makes Molise the newest region in Italy. Covering 4,438 square kilometres (1,714 sq mi), it is the second smallest region in the country, after the Aosta Valley , and has a population of 313,348 (as of 1 January 2015). The region
3248-757: Is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas . Another possible work of Samnite or Roman origin in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. One example of Samnite figurative art may be the Warrior of Capestrano. The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior. Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, draped , folded, and not stitched or sewn . Clothing held symbolic and ritual purposes in Samnite society. For example, clothing indicated social status, and chitons were often used in ceremonies. The most valuable kind of clothing
3360-528: Is considered to be the most conservative of all the known Italic languages , and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by Greek in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the diphthongs intact. Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the Old Italic scripts derived from (or cognate with) the Etruscan alphabet . Later inscriptions are written in
3472-615: Is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the Volturno River and other resources . Once Greek hegemony in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land. They conquered cities like Cumae , only failing to take Naples . In the ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, Volscians , Epirot Greeks , and other Latin communities. The Samnites and Romans first came into contact after
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3584-403: Is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit. In English: (3) … he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for
3696-624: Is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages . Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian and South Picene . Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including the Samnites , the Aurunci ( Ausones ), and the Sidicini . The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name " Osci ". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes
3808-640: Is known from inscriptions dating as far back as the 5th century BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are the Tabula Bantina , the Oscan Tablet or Tabula Osca, and the Cippus Abellanus . In Apulia , there is evidence that ancient currency was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300 BCE) at Teanum Apulum . Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into
3920-431: Is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a round shield called an aspis . To carry the shield, two straps were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap – used to provide a firm grip – ran vertically near
4032-443: Is mostly mountainous, with 55% covered by mountains and most of the rest by hills that go down to the sea. Agriculture, involving small and micro holdings, is currently offering high-quality products. The agricultural holdings produce wine, cereals, olive oil, vegetables, fruits and dairy products. Traditional products are Grass Pea (cicerchia) and Farro . Molise's autochthonous grape is Tintilia which has been rediscovered during
4144-518: Is not far to the north in Abruzzo and connected to Molise by the A14 highway (the only highway passing through Molise, by Termoli). The unemployment rate stood at 9.5% in 2020. Molise has many small and picturesque villages. Four of them have been selected by I Borghi più belli d'Italia (English: 'The most beautiful villages of Italy' ), a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest, founded on
4256-573: Is not present in Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns. The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows: Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the i -stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested. Verbs in Oscan are inflected for
4368-478: Is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization. It is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language. This phenomenon is referred to as diglossia with bilingualism. Some Oscan graffiti exists from
4480-471: Is spelt with i but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ií . Short o remains mostly unchanged, written ú ; before a final -m , o becomes more like u . Long ō becomes denoted by u or uu . Short u generally remains unchanged; after t , d , n , the sound becomes that of iu . Long ū generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ī sound for final syllables. Oscan had
4592-543: Is split into two provinces, named after their capitals: Campobasso and Isernia . Campobasso also serves as the regional capital. Molise is bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Apulia to the east, Lazio to the west, and Campania to the south. It has 35 kilometres (22 miles) of sandy coastline to the northeast, lying on the Adriatic Sea looking out toward the Tremiti Islands . The countryside of Molise
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4704-455: Is that women were capable of acquiring large amounts of wealth. However, they might have only been capable of displaying their partner's wealth. Artwork and pottery depicting Samnite women showcase them involved in rituals or nearby altars with votive offerings. These rituals usually involve women honoring their husbands through offerings of wine, or possibly praying for their husbands before they leave to fight. The geographer Strabo states that
4816-469: Is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with Greek between 400 and 100 BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused the death of the other; however, over the course of the Roman period , both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of Griko representing
4928-538: The Adriatic . After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of Hellenistic or Italian pottery dramatically increased. Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were trademarks or signatures from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks. One example of
5040-501: The Greek and Latin alphabets . The Osci probably adopted the archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan /o/, while U
5152-571: The Lucanians , who had asked Rome for protection. On another front, treaties between the Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the Battle of Aquilonia . Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during
5264-643: The Pyrrhic War . After Pyrrhus left for Sicily , the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita Hills , but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War , but most stayed loyal to Rome. After the Romans refused to grant the Samnites citizenship , they, along with other Italic peoples, rebelled against
5376-582: The Romans and fought them in a series of three wars . Despite an overwhelming victory at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the Pyrrhic War and then with Hannibal in the Second Punic War . They also fought in the Social War and later in Sulla's civil war as allies of
5488-698: The Vereiia . The Vereiia evolved into a community service group after the Roman conquest. During the Samnite Wars, the army evolved to resemble the armies of Ancient Greek city states . This new system used phalanxes , hoplites , maniples , and cohorts made of 400 men, creating an army flexible enough to fight in mountainous terrain. Low class soldiers began to be conscripted into the army, increasing its size to several thousand soldiers, although these recruits were less skilled and poorly trained. Livy mentions
5600-465: The kombennio possibly existed. The Kombennio was a democratic organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as making laws and enforcing them. Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the Pentrian capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest. Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society
5712-450: The prefectures had little authority over the Samnites. Roman historians believed that Samnite society was highly militaristic. They feared Samnite cavalry and infantry , and nicknamed them Belliger Samnis , which translates to "Warrior Samnites". It is unclear if this portrayal is accurate as most Roman historical accounts of the Samnites were written after this civilization had disappeared. Much of this work could also be propaganda. In
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#17327660945935824-423: The weight of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's dimensions . The Samnites also produced amphorae , terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss . Protective coating, also called varnish , was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from Rhodes , and pottery was commonly purchased from Greece . Pottery was also rarely imported from North Africa or areas by
5936-535: The 1st century CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors. Oscan speakers came into close contact with the Latium population. Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the Garigliano Bowl was found close to Minturnae , less than 40 kilometers from Capua , which
6048-460: The 1st century of the common era . In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with a rapid expansion in recent decades. Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including the "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script. In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan
6160-431: The 5th century BC and derive from saunion , the Greek word for javelin . At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing
6272-478: The European Union, to other parts of Italy and overseas led to a significant decline in the population of Molise. Negative net migration persisted until 1981. Large-scale emigration has caused many of the smaller towns and villages to lose over 60% of their population, while only a small number of larger towns have recorded significant gains. From 1982 to 1994, net migration has been positive, then followed by
6384-516: The Latin alphabet, the Oscan Z does not represent [ts] but instead [z] , which is not written differently from [s] in the native alphabet. When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin boldface , those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin italics , and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet. Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case. Vowels are regularly lengthened before ns and nct (in
6496-425: The Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’ Oscan tangin- "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. Molise Molise ( UK : / m ɒ ˈ l iː z eɪ / mol- EE -zay , US : / ˈ m oʊ l i z eɪ , m oʊ ˈ l iː z eɪ / MOH -lee-zay, moh- LEE -zay ; Italian: [moˈliːze] ; Molisan : Mulise , pronounced [mə'li.zə] )
6608-593: The Oscan language and three variants ( Hernican , Marrucinian and Paelignian ) known only from inscriptions left by the Hernici , Marrucini and Paeligni , minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet was used to write Oscan in Campania and surrounding territories from the 5th century BCE until at least the 1st century CE. Oscan
6720-664: The Roman conquest of the Volscians. In 354 BC, they agreed to set their border at the Liris River . Livy , a Roman historian who serves as a source on the Samnite Wars, states that when the Samnites attacked the Campanians, the latter civilization formed an alliance with the Romans. Igniting war between them and the Samnites in 343 BC. This account of the war's cause is not universally accepted by modern historians. Livy may be writing propaganda or trying to compare this war to other conflicts. After three Samnite defeats and
6832-518: The Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla , who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people. The Samnites had an economy focused upon livestock and agriculture . Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance . Aside from relying on agriculture,
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#17327660945936944-662: The Roman world. Several of their gentes would go on to achieve high distinction, including the Cassii , the Herennii , Pontii and the Vibii . Most of Samnium consisted of rugged and mountainous terrain lacking in natural resources . This resulted in a mixed economy focused on using the small amounts of fertile land to practice highly developed forms of subsistence agriculture , mixed farming , animal husbandry , sheep farming , pastoralism , and smallholdings . The prosperity of
7056-480: The Romans. This war, known as the Social War , lasted almost four years and resulted in a Roman victory. After this bloody conflict, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted citizenship to avoid the possibility of another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla . The Samnites and their allies were led by Pontius Telesinus and a Lucanian named Marcus Lamponius . They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought
7168-441: The Samnite agricultural industry likely resulted in conflicts between them and other civilizations, and possibly one of the causes of the Samnite Wars. The prominence of pastoralism and livestock in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain. Horses , poultry , cattle , goats , pigs , and sheep were all common and important kinds of livestock. These animals were valued because they could serve as
7280-439: The Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet. Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a Samnite gladiator for that of a Samnite soldier. Superstition dominated Samnite culture. They believed magic could influence reality and practiced augury . Vaguely defined spirits called numina were also prominent in Samnite mythology. It
7392-537: The Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more political power . This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The touto and pagus began to function as miniature Republics, while the vicus remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while
7504-468: The Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a senate . It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally the tribes and cities functioned independently from one another. Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called numina and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by sacrificing live animals and using votive offerings . Superstition
7616-542: The Samnites began to mint less money . Wool and leather were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used incised lines, dots, oval stamps, gem impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns . Common patterns included pyramids , stars , or dotted or incised cross motifs . Motifs could have been shaped like leaves , flowers , pomegranates , or mythological figures . One loom weight from
7728-516: The Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. After the Roman defeat at the Battle of the Caudine Forks both sides agreed to an armistice . Fighting resumed in 326 BC. The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium. Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed Bovianum and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia. In 298 BC, the Third Samnite War broke out due to tension over
7840-400: The Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, bronze , iron, olives, wool, pottery, and terracottas . Their trade networks extended across Campania, Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . Samnite society was stratified into cantons. Each city was a vicus . Many vici were grouped into a pagus , and many pagi were grouped into a touto . There were four Samnite touto , one for each of
7952-1060: The Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else. The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized prostitution . Young women of all social standings would engage in sexual activities as a rite of passage . It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a profession . The first art style used by the Samnites in Pompeii developed when Greek painters traveled to Italy to paint for local aristocrats . It borrows elements from Greek, Etruscan , and other Italic art . For example, hierarchy of scale , clothing demonstrating status, captions , episodic narratives , and depictions of history were all borrowed from other cultures. Samnite art featured polychrome murals and paintings . The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across tesserae . There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or miculatum , and woven-style, or oppus tessellatum , . Miculatum consisted of inserting marble and terracotta trays into
8064-549: The Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their sex , and marry them. Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on athletic capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners. Samnite society may have enforced
8176-425: The Samnites. Spearheads were made from two bronze or iron parts. The upper part was the spearhead proper, and a lower part, which used a tube to hold up the end of a wooden shaft. To fasten the shaft to the spearhead, nails were driven through a hole in the shaft. Tubes were used to fit the spear into a bronze chape , which would protect the wooden shaft. Projectile weaponry was so essential to Samnite tactics that if
8288-554: The adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for mercenaries . Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's workshops . Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied
8400-406: The alliance to pass legislation , leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a bill could become a law. Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The Frentani was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of
8512-487: The border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity. The Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh evolved into the word Safen , which later became Safin . The word Safin may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom. Etymologically, this name is generally recognized to be
8624-432: The bottom of the Samnite social hierarchy . They were grouped into cantons called pagi , which were run by an elected official known as a meddiss . The pagi were organized into toutos , which were the Samnite tribes. Each touto was led by an annually elected official with supreme executive and judicial powers called the meddíss túvtiks. Political entities similar to councils, assemblies, or senates such as
8736-625: The dead adequately. Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an afterlife . Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion. They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government. Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards. There were two major roles for Samnite women: domestic and ceremonial. Women would weave , which likely played an important role in
8848-491: The dead or marriage. Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or jewelry . Young adult women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and fibulae similar to those worn by boys, possibly meaning that femininity was tied to youth in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that
8960-406: The early periods of Samnite history, the military consisted of trained warriors led by local leaders. Access to the military (and military equipment) was dependent on one's wealth and status , while poorer and lower status individuals were relegated to work such as agriculture. Samnite soldiers would have been trained in the triangular forum in Pompeii from an early age as part of a group known as
9072-695: The economy. They also likely exercised a small amount of political power through the symposium , which was a kind of ancient Greek or Etruscan banquet. Other responsibilities included teaching young girls how to dance , childrearing , and possibly managing the household . Relationships between Samnite wives and husbands are unclear. Libation scenes might suggest that a wife was supposed to be dutiful and loyal to her husband . Women may have been expected to be disciplined —in Horace's Odes he complains about women lacking these traits. He possibly based his expectations of women on Samnite customs. Another possibility
9184-861: The following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings: Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings: Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular -ter , plural -nter . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- and -s- perfects are not attested in Oscan. Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as deded 'gave', -tt- suffix as in prúfa-tt-ed 'approved', -k- suffix as in kella-k-ed 'collected, and -f- suffix as in aíkda-f-ed 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on
9296-473: The following diphthongs: The sounds of diphthongs remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins. The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows: In Oscan, s between vowels did not undergo rhotacism as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound /z/ . However, between vowels, the original cluster rs developed either to a simple r with lengthening on
9408-590: The helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. Feathers and horns were a common feature of Samnite crests and plumes . Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the fit of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the ankle and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights." Projectiles such as spears and javelins were commonly used by
9520-590: The initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities. The density of the population in Molise is well below the national average. In 2008, Molise registered 72.3 inhabitants per km , compared to a national figure of 198.8. The region is subdivided into two provinces: Campobasso and Isernia, which together cover 1.5% of Italy's territory and less than 1% of its population. The larger province in terms of area
9632-410: The land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle
9744-408: The last ten years, and many other PDO (DOP) wines, both red and white. Though there is a large Fiat plant ( Termoli ), the industrial sector is dominated by the farming industry with small and medium-sized farms spread widely throughout the region. Another important industry is food processing: pasta, meat, milk products, oil and wine are the traditional products of the region. In the services sector
9856-418: The latter of which the n is lost) and possibly before nf and nx as well. Anaptyxis , the development of a vowel between a liquid or nasal and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel. Short
9968-399: The lives of men and women. For example, both have healthy teeth , implying that they had healthy diets with low amounts of carbohydrates . The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death. Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that
10080-469: The male identity was tied to maturity . The skeletons of men and women also show differences in trauma . Male skeletons found near Pontecagnano Faiano have a cranial trauma rate of 12.9%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at Alfedena has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not. However,
10192-514: The many aromatic herbs that grow there. Some of the characteristic foods include spicy salami , a variety of locally produced cheeses , dishes using lamb or goat , pasta dishes with hearty sauces, and vegetables that grow in the region. In addition to bruschetta , a typical antipasto will consist of any of several meat dishes, such as the sausages capocollo , the fennel -seasoned salsiccie al finocchio, soppressata , ventricina , frascateglie or sanguinaccio. In addition to these sausages,
10304-579: The materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as Taranto . Currency at this time generally depicted places like Allifae , Nola , Philistia , or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. Coins may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production,
10416-439: The most important industries are distribution, hotels and catering, followed by transport and communications, banking and insurance. With few exceptions, in all sectors firms are small, and this explains the difficulties encountered when marketing products on a national scale. International tourism is growing largely as a result of the recent opening of international flights from other European countries to Pescara Airport , which
10528-411: The native alphabet's H and one for its V . The letters η and ω do not indicate quantity. Sometimes, the clusters ηι and ωϝ denote the diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively while ει and oυ are saved to denote monophthongs /iː/ and /uː/ of the native alphabet. At other times, ει and oυ are used to denote diphthongs, in which case o denotes the /uː/ sound. When written in
10640-733: The person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of preventative healthcare ; it may have been done to protect them in childbirth . Analysis of skeletons has shown that both genders have fractures , lesions , and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly. This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons. Other skeletons showcase similarities between
10752-441: The preceding vowel, or to a long rr (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original rs becomes r just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters sm , sn , sl : Umbrian `sesna "dinner," Oscan kersnu vs Latin cēna . Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , ablative and locative (the latter
10864-1475: The present stem): Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet. In Latin : Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant. In English: And if anyone shall want to build on
10976-433: The province of Campobasso. Molise comprises two provinces: [REDACTED] Molise has much tradition from the religious to the pagan, many museums, archeological sites, musical and food events. Tradition Arts, musical and food festivals Museums The cuisine of Molise is similar to the cuisine of Abruzzo , though there are some differences in the dishes and ingredients. The flavors of Molise are dominated by
11088-507: The reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. The Greek geographer Strabo wrote that the Samnite civilization originated from
11200-486: The sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day. Notes: Oscan carn- “part, piece” is related to Latin carn- “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root *ker- meaning ‘cut’―apparently
11312-1437: The sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road. out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible): (3) … deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am … (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan … (5) deiuatud sipus comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid. In Latin: (3) … iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam),
11424-463: The shield's edge. Alongside aspides , the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used scuta . It is also possible that the Samnite scutum influenced the Roman shield; however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying scuta ; however, it is either as trophies taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic ancient Greek art . Livy states that
11536-424: The strips, giving them the appearance of silver . When making the belts, a thermal treatment was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the material . Samnite helmets were based on Greek military equipment —they used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by fastening horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. Rivets could also be used to pin crests to
11648-415: The town of Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing the lyre . Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with Greek words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated
11760-466: Was a fastened bronze or leather girdle covered in bronze. Men wore rings , amulets with snake heads, and collars . Collars were usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants and engraved with incised decorations. Collars would be given to the man in boyhood , and never removed. Bearskins were also common clothing. Oscan language Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy . The language
11872-525: Was absent and represented by the hapax slaagid (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to a surviving local toponym. In phonology too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. pis , Lat. quis ) (compare the similar P-Celtic/Q-Celtic cleavage in the Celtic languages ); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. mefiai , Lat. mediae ). Oscan
11984-495: Was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits, which evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses. Few of these Samnite deities are known. It is known that gods such as Vulcan , Diana , and Mefitis were all worshipped, with Mars being the most prominent in the Samnite religion. To honor their gods, votive offerings and animals would be sacrificed. In a practice known as the Ver Sacrum , all things produced in
12096-642: Was most drastic in Larinum . The city began as a major grain producer with a mill and a threshing floor , and later developed into the hub for all economic activity in the Biferno Valley . The Samnites exported goods such as cereals , cabbages , olives , olive oil , wine , bronze , iron , textiles , legumes , and vines . They also imported materials such as bronze bowls and bucchero from places like Campania, Etruria , Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . These trade networks resulted in
12208-656: Was once a large Oscan settlement. Oscan had much in common with Latin , though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin volo , velle , volui , and other such forms from the Proto-Indo-European root *welh₁- ('to will') were represented by words derived from *ǵʰer- ('to desire'): Oscan herest ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin volent (id.). Latin locus (place)
12320-406: Was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that magical chants could influence reality, that magical amulets could protect people, and that augurs could see the future . Samnite priests would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked
12432-524: Was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the Papii , Statii , Egnatii , and Staii . Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily militaristic , with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance. In order for
12544-426: Was used for /u/ as well as historical long */oː/, which had undergone a sound shift in Oscan to become ~[uː]. Í was used to denote a higher-mid [ẹ] . [REDACTED] The Z of the native alphabet is pronounced [ts] . Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long I is written IÍ . Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for
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