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55-626: Colonial government in America was a system of governance modeled after the British government of the time, with the king corresponding to the governor, the House of Commons to the colonial assembly , and the House of Lords to the governor's council . Colonial assemblies did not believe that the British Parliament had authority over them to impose taxes (or certain other laws), that it

110-581: A committee of the whole of the Privy Council, of whom a quorum was three. Even worse, many Privy Councillors were not lawyers, all Privy Councillors had equal voting power on appeals, and there was no requirement that any of the Privy Councillors hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer. As a result, parties to appeals could and did try to tilt the outcome of appeals in their favor by persuading nonlawyer Privy Councillors to show up for

165-472: A "stake in society" and to be vulnerable to corruption . Tax issues and budget decisions originated in the assembly. Part of the budget went toward the cost of raising and equipping the colonial militia . As the American Revolution drew near, this subject was a point of contention and conflict between the provincial assemblies and their respective governors. The perennial struggles between

220-702: A Crown colony in 1684, when the government revoked a royal charter given to the Somers Isles Company , successor to the Virginia Company , which had previously controlled administration, including the appointment of governors. Afterwards the British government appointed the Governor of Bermuda .) Despite its later usage, the term "Crown colony" was used primarily, until the mid-19th century, to refer to colonies that had been acquired through wars, such as Trinidad and Tobago . After that time it

275-575: A council and an assembly. The system was modeled on the British constitution , with the governor corresponding to the monarch, the council to the House of Lords and the assembly to the House of Commons. The American colonists were proud of their status as British subjects and claimed the same rights of Englishmen as their counterparts in the mother country. The thirteen colonies were all founded with royal authorization, and authority continued to flow from

330-454: A provisional legislative body since their governors did not dissolve or prevent the legislative assemblies from meeting. This was the case in the Charter colonies with more autonomy, such as Connecticut and Rhode Island , which elected colonial governors who were aligned with their assemblies. (Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull and Rhode Island Governor Nicholas Cooke served as both

385-628: A republican constitution on January 5, 1776. South Carolina's constitution was adopted on March 26, and Virginia's constitution was adopted on June 29. In May 1776, the Continental Congress called for the creation of new governments "where no government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs have been hitherto established" and "that the exercise of every kind of authority under the ... Crown should be totally suppressed". The Declaration of Independence in July further encouraged

440-483: The American Revolution , the colonial governments ceased to function effectively as royal governors prorogued and dissolved the assemblies. By 1773, committees of correspondence were governing towns and counties, and nearly all the colonies had established provincial congresses , which were legislative assemblies acting outside of royal authority. These were temporary measures, and it was understood that

495-682: The British Nationality Act 1981 . Many British citizens in the colonies (with the exceptions of the Falkland Islanders and subsequently the Gibraltarians ) found that their "Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies" had changed overnight to British Dependent Territories Citizenship , a form of British citizenship that stripped them of some of their rights, including the right to reside and work in

550-650: The House of Burgesses of the Colony of Virginia in 1619 and the House of Assembly of the Parliament of Bermuda in 1620. While initially limited in government even with an elected lower house, over the centuries in some Crown colonies, more independent authority was given. All remaining British colonies, whether Crown (such as the Falkland Islands ) or self-governing (such as Bermuda ), were renamed " British Dependent Territories " from 1 January 1983 under

605-797: The People's Republic of China . In 2002, the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 further changed their name to British Overseas Territories . There were three types of Crown colony as of 1918, with differing degrees of autonomy: Crown colonies with representative councils , such as Bermuda , Jamaica , Ceylon and Fiji , contained two legislative chambers, consisting of Crown-appointed and locally elected members. Crown colonies with nominated councils , such as British Honduras , Sierra Leone , British Windward Islands and Hong Kong , were staffed entirely by Crown-appointed members, with some appointed representation from

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660-436: The Virginia Company and assumed control of the administration. Executive crown governors are sometimes complemented by a locally appointed and/or elected legislature with limited powers – that is, such territories lack responsible government . For example, while the House of Assembly of Bermuda has existed continuously since its first session in 1620, Bermuda has only had responsible government since 1968. (Bermuda became

715-495: The absolute monarchies then developing in the rest of Europe. Consequently, it mattered greatly to the later political culture of the United States that England, rather than Spain or France, eventually dominated colonization north of Florida. By the start of the American Revolution , the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a governor exercising executive power and a bicameral legislature made up of

770-521: The cabinet ministers of the Privy Council to actually run the government. These ministers depended on majority support in both houses of Parliament to govern effectively. While only 25 percent of adult men met the property qualifications to vote in parliamentary elections, historian Alan Taylor notes: the English constitution was extraordinarily open and libertarian when compared with

825-584: The county clerk . In addition to conducting trials, the county court was responsible for many other functions including: Before the American Revolution, attempts to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies were unsuccessful. Multiple plans for a union were proposed at the Albany Congress in 1754. One of these plans, proposed by Benjamin Franklin , was the Albany Plan . During

880-731: The 1800s some became, with a loosening of the power of royal governors, self-governing colonies , within which the sovereign state (the UK Government) delegated legislation for most local internal matters of governance to elected assemblies, with consent of the governor, overseen by the Colonial Office and the Board of Trade and Plantations . The Colonial Office gave way to the Dominion Office for some of these territories in 1925. Elected lower houses had their beginnings in

935-670: The British Parliament’s Intolerable Acts . By 1775, the committees had become counter-governments that gradually replaced royal authority and took control of local governments. Known as the Committees of Safety, they regulated the economy, politics, morality, and militia of their individual communities. After the British Proclamation of Rebellion and the King’s speech before Parliament (27 October 1775)

990-610: The British constitution would become the central issue of the American Revolution. The Privy Council (technically, the King-in-Council ) exercised appellate jurisdiction over the colonies. Appellate jurisdiction was delegated to the Board of Trade in 1679 and transferred to the Privy Council Appeals Committee in 1696. The Appeals Committee was severely flawed because its membership was actually

1045-487: The British government did exercise veto power over colonial legislation, and regardless of the type of colonial government, retained control of the law and equity courts; judges were selected by the British government and served at the king's pleasure. Diplomatic affairs were handled by the British government, as were trade policies and wars with foreign powers (wars with Native Americans were generally handled by colonial governments). The American Revolution (1765–1783)

1100-559: The Colonies . The term Crown colony continued to be used until 1981, when the British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified the remaining British colonies as "British Dependent Territories". By this time, the term "Crown colony" referred specifically to colonies lacking substantial autonomy, which were administered by an executive governor, appointed by the British Government – such as Hong Kong , before its transfer in 1997 to

1155-543: The Thirteen Colonies The governments of the Thirteen Colonies of British America developed in the 17th and 18th centuries under the influence of the British constitution . The British monarch issued colonial charters that established either royal colonies , proprietary colonies , or corporate colonies . In every colony, a governor led the executive branch , and the legislative branch

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1210-534: The United Kingdom. From 2002, the dependent territories have been known officially as British Overseas Territories . Early English colonies were often proprietary colonies , usually established and administered by companies under charters granted by the monarch. The first "royal colony" was the Colony of Virginia , after 1624, when the Crown of the Kingdom of England revoked the royal charter it had granted to

1265-412: The assemblies often demanded more power. To gain support for his agenda, the governor distributed patronage . He could reward supporters by appointing them to various offices such as attorney general, surveyor-general or as a local sheriff. These offices were sought after as sources of prestige and income. He could also reward supporters with land grants . As a result of this strategy, colonial politics

1320-429: The colonial governors and the assemblies are sometimes viewed, in retrospect, as signs of a rising democratic spirit. However, those assemblies generally represented the privileged classes , and they were protecting the colony against unreasonable executive encroachments. Legally, the crown governor's authority was unassailable. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to arguments based upon natural rights and

1375-545: The colonies as inadequate and inefficient because lines of authority were never entirely clear. Before 1768, responsibility for colonial affairs rested with the Privy Council and the Secretary of State for the Southern Department . The Secretary relied on the Board of Trade to supply him with information and pass on his instructions to colonial officials. After 1768, the Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs

1430-488: The colonies moved towards independence. Provisional governments began to create new state constitutions and governments. Committees of safety were a later outcome of the committees of correspondence. Committees of safety were executive bodies that governed during adjournments of, were created by, and derived their authority from provincial assemblies or congresses. In some colonies there were little or no changes to their assemblies until statehood. They had no need of

1485-523: The colonies were ruled solely by the monarch gave way to greater involvement of Parliament by the mid 1700s. Acts of Parliament regulated commerce (see Navigation Acts ) , defined citizenship, and limited the amount of paper money issued in the colonies . The British government argued that Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies was unlimited. This was stated explicitly in the Declaratory Act of 1766. The British also argued that

1540-401: The colonies. They possessed royal authority transmitted through their commissions and instructions. Among their powers included the right to summon, prorogue and dissolve the elected assembly. Governors could also veto any bill proposed by the colonial legislature. Gradually, the assemblies successfully restricted the power of governors by gaining control over money bills , including

1595-458: The colonists, while not actually represented in Parliament, were nonetheless virtually represented . The American view, shaped by Whig political philosophy , was that Parliament's authority over the colonies was limited. While the colonies initially recognized Parliament's right to legislate for the whole British empire —such as on matters of trade—they argued that parliamentary taxation

1650-652: The common welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the consent of the governed . Committees of correspondence were formed as shadow governments in the Thirteen colonies prior to the American Revolution. During the First Continental Congress (in 1774), committees of inspection were formed to enforce the Continental Association trade boycott with Britain in response to

1705-412: The common welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the consent of the governed . Virginia and Maryland were colonies characterized by dispersed plantations and few towns. The main unit of local government was the county , which was controlled by wealthy planters. On the assembly's advice, the governor appointed the judges, the sheriff , and

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1760-404: The council also had judicial authority. It was the final court of appeal within the colony. The council's multifaceted roles exposed it to criticism. Richard Henry Lee criticized Virginia's colonial government for lacking the balance and separation of powers found in the British constitution due to the council's lack of independence from the Crown. The lower house of a colonial legislature

1815-908: The council or governor could call a special session. As in Britain, the right to vote was limited to men with freehold "landed property sufficient to ensure that they were personally independent and had a vested interest in the welfare of their communities". Due to the greater availability of land, the right to vote was more widespread in the colonies where by one estimate around 60 percent of adult white males could vote. In England and Wales, only 17–20 percent of adult males were eligible. Six colonies allowed alternatives to freehold ownership (such as personal property or tax payment) that extended voting rights to owners of urban property and even prosperous farmers who rented their land. Groups excluded from voting included laborers, tenant farmers , unskilled workers and indentured servants . These were considered to lack

1870-487: The government. The governor's council also functioned as the upper house of the colonial legislature. In most colonies, the council could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider and act upon petitions. In some colonies, the council acted primarily as a chamber of revision, reviewing and improving legislation. At times, it would argue with the assembly over the amendment of money bills or other legislation. In addition to being both an executive and legislative body,

1925-435: The governor and legislators. Proprietary colonies were owned and governed by individuals known as proprietors . To attract settlers, however, proprietors agreed to share power with property owners. Maryland , South Carolina , North Carolina , New York , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania were founded as proprietary colonies. In 1624, Virginia became the first royal colony when the bankrupt Virginia Company's charter

1980-521: The governors, and British citizens resident in Crown colonies either had no representation in local government, or limited representation in a lower house . In several Crown colonies, this limited representation grew over time. As the House of Commons of the British Parliament has never included seats for any of the colonies, there was no direct representation in the sovereign government for British subjects or citizens residing in Crown colonies. The administration of Crown colonies changed over time and in

2035-561: The hearings on their appeals. For this reason, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies. Control over a corporate colony was granted to a joint-stock company , such as the Virginia Company . Virginia , Massachusetts , Connecticut and Rhode Island were founded as corporate colonies. New England's corporate colonies were virtually independent of royal authority and operated as republics where property owners elected

2090-407: The interests of businessmen, creditors and property owners in general. While lawyers were prominent throughout the thirteen colonies, merchants were important in the northern colonies and planters were more involved in the southern provinces. Members served "at pleasure" rather than for life or fixed terms. When there was an absentee governor or an interval between governors, the council acted as

2145-517: The last colonial governors and first state governors.) The Delaware Colony was a proprietary colony under Governor John Penn of the Province of Pennsylvania , which included the “Lower Counties of the Delaware", but it maintained a separate Delaware assembly . It was generally allowed more independence of action in their colonial assembly than in other colonies. Colonial government in

2200-522: The local population. Hong Kong had a representative council following the introduction of election for the Hong Kong Legislative Council in 1995. Crown colonies ruled directly by a governor , such as Basutoland , Gibraltar , Saint Helena and Singapore , were fewest in number and had the least autonomy. The "from" column lists the year the colony began to be administered by the Crown. These colonies may have existed under

2255-446: The monarch as colonial governments exercised authority in the king's name. A colony's precise relationship to the Crown depended on whether it was a corporate colony , proprietary colony or royal colony as defined in its colonial charter . Whereas royal colonies belonged to the Crown, proprietary and corporate colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests. Historian Robert Middlekauff describes royal administration of

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2310-714: The new state constitutions and, ultimately, the United States Constitution adopted in 1789. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Great Britain was governed as a constitutional monarchy with sovereignty residing in the King-in-Parliament . Parliament was a bicameral legislature . Aristocrats inherited seats in the House of Lords , while the gentry and merchants controlled the elected House of Commons . The British monarch possessed executive authority, but he relied on

2365-692: The provincial congresses were not equivalent to proper legislatures. By May 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress felt that a permanent government was needed. On the advice of the Second Continental Congress , Massachusetts once again operated under the Charter of 1691 but without a governor (the governor's council functioned as the executive branch). In the fall of 1775, the Continental Congress recommended that New Hampshire , South Carolina and Virginia form new governments. New Hampshire adopted

2420-472: The salaries of the governor and other officials. Therefore, a governor could find his salary withheld by an uncooperative legislature. Governors were often placed in an untenable position. Their official instructions from London demanded that they protect the Crown's power—the royal prerogative —from usurpation by the assembly; at the same time, they were also ordered to secure more colonial funding for Britain's wars against France. In return for military funding,

2475-592: The states to form new governments, and most states had adopted new constitutions by the end of 1776. Because of the Revolutionary War , New York and Georgia did not complete constitutions until 1777. Crown colony A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England , and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire . There

2530-415: Was a representative assembly . These assemblies were called by different names. Virginia had a House of Burgesses , Massachusetts had a House of Deputies , and South Carolina had a Commons House of Assembly. While names differed, the assemblies had several features in common. Members were elected annually by the propertied citizens of the towns or counties. Usually they met for a single, short session; but

2585-664: Was a dispute over the British Parliament's right to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies. The British government's position was that Parliament's authority was unlimited, while the American position was that colonial legislatures were coequal with Parliament and outside of its jurisdiction. As the revolution progressed, the colonial governments were replaced by temporary provincial congresses and ultimately by state constitutions establishing republican governments. The colonial experience informed and shaped

2640-418: Was a violation of the principle of taxation by consent since consent could only be granted by the colonists' own representatives. Later, Americans argued that the colonies were outside of Parliament's jurisdiction and that the colonists owed allegiance only to the Crown. In effect, Americans argued that their colonial legislatures were coequal—not subordinate—to Parliament. These incompatible interpretations of

2695-429: Was characterized by a split between a governor's faction (the court party ) and his opposition (the country party ). The executive branch included an advisory council to the governor that varied in size ranging from ten to thirty members. In royal colonies, the Crown appointed a mix of placemen (paid officeholders in the government) and members of the upper class within colonial society. Councilors tended to represent

2750-450: Was divided into two houses: a governor's council and a representative assembly. Men who met property qualifications elected the assembly. In royal colonies, the British government appointed the governor and the council. In proprietary colonies, the proprietors appointed the governor and his council. In corporate colonies, voters elected these officials. In domestic matters, the colonies were largely self-governing on many issues; however,

2805-421: Was more broadly applied to every British territory other than British India , and self-governing colonies, such as the Province of Canada , Newfoundland , British Columbia , New South Wales , Queensland , South Australia , Tasmania , Victoria , Western Australia , and New Zealand . By the mid-19th century, the monarch was appointing colonial governors only on the advice of the Secretary of State for

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2860-468: Was responsible for supervising the colonies; however, this ministry suffered from ineffective secretaries and the jealousy of other government ministers. Parliament's authority over the colonies was unclear and controversial in the 18th century. As English government evolved from government by the Crown toward government in the name of the Crown (the King-in-Parliament), the convention that

2915-490: Was revoked. Over time, more colonies transitioned to royal control. When the Revolution started, there were eight royal colonies and five non-royal. Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware remained proprietary, while Rhode Island and Connecticut continued as corporate colonies. In royal colonies, governors were appointed by the Crown and represented its interests. Before 1689, governors were the dominant political figures in

2970-553: Was the colonial assembly’s duty to decide what should be imposed on their fellow colonists (the Massachusetts Circular Letter was an example of that argument). Legally, the crown governor's authority was unassailable, but assemblies began to resist efforts by some governors and royal officials to enforce acts of Parliament or to raise local taxes that governors demanded. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to arguments based upon natural rights and

3025-467: Was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the UK Government , with or without the assistance of a local council. In some cases, this council was split into two: an executive council and a legislative council , and the executive council was similar to the Privy Council that advises the monarch. Members of executive councils were appointed by

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