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99-557: Various techniques are used, and are aimed at influencing a target audience's value system, belief system, emotions , motives , reasoning , or behavior . It is used to induce confessions or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to the originator's objectives, and are sometimes combined with black operations or false flag tactics. It is also used to destroy the morale of enemies through tactics that aim to depress troops' psychological states. Target audiences can be governments , organizations , groups , and individuals , and

198-410: A Propaganda Agency at Wellington House. A distinguished body of literary talent was enlisted for the task, with its members including Arthur Conan Doyle , Ford Madox Ford , G. K. Chesterton , Thomas Hardy , Rudyard Kipling and H. G. Wells . Over 1,160 pamphlets were published during the war and distributed to neutral countries, and eventually, to Germany. One of the first significant publications,

297-590: A hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in

396-436: A "personal economic value" in contrast to its "societal economic value." Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of the factors that generate behavior (besides needs, interests and habits) and influence the choices made by an individual. Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value,

495-403: A different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions. Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value is violated". For instance,

594-467: A form of social growth). Within this Schwartz places 10 universal values: self-direction, stimulation and hedonism (related to openness growth), achievement and power (related to self enhancement), security, conformity and tradition (related to conservation), and humility, benevolence and universalism (relate to self-transcendence). Personality traits using the big 5 measure correlate with Schwartz's value construct. Openness and extraversion correlates with

693-628: A general strategy to mislead German high command as to the date and location of the invasion, which was obviously going to happen. Planning began in 1943 under the auspices of the London Controlling Section (LCS). A draft strategy, referred to as Plan Jael, was presented to Allied high command at the Tehran Conference . Operation Fortitude was intended to convince the Germans of a greater Allied military strength than

792-536: A heavy cost, in that the target population sooner or later recognizes them as propaganda and discredits the source. He writes, "This is one of the few dogmas advanced by Sykewarriors that is likely to endure as an axiom of propaganda: Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say, you must make him believe what you say." Consistent with this idea, the Allied strategy in World War II

891-459: A higher tolerance for deviant behavior. A history of threats, such as natural disasters, high population density, or vulnerability to infectious diseases, is associated with greater tightness. It has been suggested that tightness allows cultures to coordinate more effectively to survive threats. Studies in evolutionary psychology have led to similar findings. The so-called regality theory finds that war and other perceived collective dangers have

990-706: A judge, give a Prienian decision," and Hipponax said, "More powerful in pleading causes than Bias of Priene." He was always reckoned among the Seven Sages , and was mentioned by Dicaearchus as one of the Four to whom alone that title was universally given, the remaining three being Thales , Pittacus , and Solon . Satyrus placed him at the head of the Seven Sages, and even Heraclitus , who poured scorn on figures such as Hesiod and Pythagoras , referred to Bias as "a man of more consideration than any." One of

1089-524: A letter of challenge on the main mosque and set fire to the alcaicería before withdrawing. In 1574, having been informed about the pirate attacks previous to the Battle of Manila , Spanish captain Juan de Salcedo had his relief force return to the city by night while playing marching music and carrying torches in loose formations, so they would appear to be a much larger army to any nearby enemy. They reached

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1188-504: A mean and end-in-itself. Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the sum of instrumental (specifically the all instrumental value ) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in value systems , which

1287-438: A narrow "book learning" sense. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call ng'om . Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call "nyadhi". Factors that influence the development of cultural values are summarized below. The Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world is a two-dimensional cultural map showing

1386-408: A new country, but the order of preferences is still quite stable. Motherhood causes women to shift their values towards stability and away from openness-to-change but not fathers. Moral foundation theory identifies five forms of moral foundation: harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, in-group/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sanctity. The first two are often termed individualizing foundations , with

1485-721: A person and defending your family they are called tragic trade-offs. Protected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the Israeli-Palestinian conflict ) because they can hinder businesslike (''utilitarian'') negotiations. A series of experimental studies directed by Scott Atran and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the ISIS front line in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate

1584-407: A person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone's life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions. Bias of Priene Bias ( / ˈ b aɪ ə s / ; Greek : Βίας ὁ Πριηνεύς; fl. 6th century BC) of Priene

1683-408: A profound influence on both the psychology of individuals and on the social structure and cultural values. A dangerous environment leads to a hierarchical, authoritarian, and warlike culture, while a safe and peaceful environment fosters an egalitarian and tolerant culture. A value system is a set of consistent values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity . As a member of

1782-692: A same set of values will not reflect equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural identity of an individual. Schwartz proposed a theory of individual values based on surveys data. His model groups values in terms of growth versus protection, and personal versus social focus. Values are then associated with openness to change (which Schwartz views as related to personal growth), self-enhancement (which Schwartz views as mostly to do with self-protection), conservation (which Schwartz views as mostly related to social-protection), and self-transcendence (which Schwartz views as

1881-408: A society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them. A value system in its own right is internally consistent when Conversely, a value system by itself

1980-516: A tight hold on propaganda efforts for its people. The Chinese government also utilizes cognitive warfare against Taiwan . The Centre interarmées des actions sur l'environnement is an organization made up of 300 soldiers whose mission is to assure to the four service arm of the French Armed Forces psychological warfare capacities. Deployed in particular to Mali and Afghanistan, its missions "consist in better explaining and accepting

2079-525: Is internally inconsistent if: Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems: The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding

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2178-507: Is a set of consistent values and measures. S. H. Schwartz , along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out empirical research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events". He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need: biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to

2277-454: Is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate. Relative values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On

2376-526: Is avoided or minimized . A protected value (also sacred value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many other individuals. Protected values tend to be "intrinsically good", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary. If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing

2475-402: Is capable of protecting against psychological aggression since it cannot be legally adjudicated. "Here the propagandists is [sic] dealing with a foreign adversary whose morale he seeks to destroy by psychological means so that the opponent begins to doubt the validity of his beliefs and actions." According to Boaz Ganor , terrorism weakens the sense of security and disturbs daily life, damaging

2574-523: Is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism , are intrinsic , and whether some, such as acquisitiveness , should be classified as vices or virtues . Ethical issues that value may be regarded as a study under ethics , which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy . Similarly, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of philosophic value sometimes referred to as axiology . Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with

2673-553: Is expressed through the G20, legitimacy through the United Nations, and efficiency through member-driven international organizations. The expertise provided by international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of identity in a globalized world . Nonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in

2772-435: Is not just limited to soldiers. Civilians of foreign territories can also be targeted by technology and media so as to cause an effect on the government of their country. Mass communication such as radio allows for direct communication with an enemy populace, and therefore has been used in many efforts. Social media channels and the internet allow for campaigns of disinformation and misinformation performed by agents anywhere in

2871-806: Is responsible for PSYOP efforts. The center is subordinate to the Cyber and Information Domain Service branch alongside multiple IT and Electronic Warfare battalions and consists of around 1000 soldiers. One project of the German PSYOP forces is the radio station Stimme der Freiheit (Sada-e Azadi, Voice of Freedom), heard by thousands of Afghans . Another is the publication of various newspapers and magazines in Kosovo and Afghanistan , where German soldiers serve with NATO . Value (personal and cultural) In ethics and social sciences , value denotes

2970-578: Is rooted in the Chinese Stratagems outlined by Sun Tzu in The Art of War and Thirty-Six Stratagems . In its dealings with its rivals, China is expected to utilize Marxism to mobilize communist loyalists, as well as flex its economic and military muscle to persuade other nations to act in the Chinese government's interests. The Chinese government also tries to control the media to keep

3069-413: Is sometimes used synonymously with goodness . However, "goodness" has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous. Social value is a concept used in the public sector to cover the social, environmental and economic impacts of individual and collective actions. Personal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture

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3168-449: Is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. Maximizing life-stances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative. There may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that

3267-451: Is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties . An ethic good with instrumental value may be termed an ethic mean , and an ethic good with intrinsic value may be termed an end-in-itself . An object may be both

3366-602: The Report on Alleged German Outrages of 1915, had a great effect on general opinion across the world. The pamphlet documented atrocities , both actual and alleged, committed by the German army against Belgian civilians. A Dutch illustrator, Louis Raemaekers , provided the highly emotional drawings which appeared in the pamphlet. In 1917, the bureau was subsumed into the new Department of Information and branched out into telegraph communications, radio , newspapers, magazines and

3465-643: The Croats and Slovenes . It had a significant effect on the final collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Army at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto . Aerial leaflets were dropped over German trenches containing postcards from prisoners of war detailing their humane conditions, surrender notices and general propaganda against the Kaiser and the German generals . By the end of the war, MI7b had distributed almost 26 million leaflets. The Germans began shooting

3564-505: The Lydian king Alyattes by fattening up a pair of mules and driving them out of the besieged city. When Alyattes' envoy was then sent to Priene, Bias had piles of sand covered with wheat to give the impression of plentiful resources. This ruse appears to have been well known in medieval Europe: defenders in castles or towns under siege would throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful. A famous example occurs in

3663-523: The Mongolian Empire in the 13th century AD employed less subtle techniques. Defeating the will of the enemy before having to attack and reaching a consented settlement was preferable to facing his wrath. The Mongol generals demanded submission to the Khan and threatened the initially captured villages with complete destruction if they refused to surrender. If they had to fight to take the settlement,

3762-605: The Munich Agreement . After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the British set up the Political Warfare Executive to produce and distribute propaganda. Through the use of powerful transmitters , broadcasts could be made across Europe. Sefton Delmer managed a successful black propaganda campaign through several radio stations which were designed to be popular with German troops while at

3861-639: The North Africa campaign . Mock hardware was created for Bodyguard ; in particular, dummy landing craft were stockpiled to give the impression that the invasion would take place near Calais . The Operation was a strategic success and the Normandy landings caught German defences unaware. Continuing deception, portraying the landings as a diversion from a forthcoming main invasion in the Calais region, led Hitler into delaying transferring forces from Calais to

3960-781: The Sandinista government in Nicaragua . The CIA used psychological warfare techniques against the Panamanians by delivering unlicensed TV broadcasts. The United States government has used propaganda broadcasts against the Cuban government through TV Marti , based in Miami, Florida . However, the Cuban government has been successful at jamming the signal of TV Marti. In the Iraq War ,

4059-595: The US , Russia , and China . In 2022, Meta and the Stanford Internet Observatory found that over five years people associated with the U.S. military, who tried to conceal their identities, created fake accounts on social media systems including Balatarin , Facebook , Instagram , Odnoklassniki , Telegram , Twitter , VKontakte and YouTube in an influence operation in Central Asia and

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4158-607: The implicit nature of value communication . Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in management studies. They are self respect , warm relationships , sense of accomplishment , self-fulfillment , fun and enjoyment , excitement , sense of belonging , being well respected , and security . From a functional aspect these values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship area, personal factors, and non-personal factors. From an ethnocentric perspective, it could be assumed that

4257-407: The norms of a culture , but they are more global and intellectual than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil . While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects

4356-450: The subjective theory of value , the personal philosophic value a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the personal philosophic value of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have

4455-654: The 8th-century legend of Lady Carcas , who supposedly persuaded the Franks to abandon a five-year siege by this means and gave her name to Carcassonne as a result. During the Granada War , Spanish captain Hernán Pérez del Pulgar routinely employed psychological tactics as part of his guerrilla actions against the Emirate of Granada . In 1490, infiltrating the city by night with a small retinue of soldiers, he nailed

4554-755: The German newspapers, was distributed via airborne leaflets by the French. The Central Powers were slow to use these techniques; however, at the start of the war the Germans succeeded in inducing the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to declare 'holy war', or Jihad , against the Western infidels . They also attempted to foment rebellion against the British Empire in places as far afield as Ireland , Afghanistan , and India . The Germans' greatest success

4653-605: The London Controlling Section, chartered in 1942 under the control of John Bevan. Clarke pioneered many of the strategies of military deception. His ideas for combining fictional orders of battle, visual deception and double agents helped define Allied deception strategy during the war, for which he has been referred to as "the greatest British deceiver of WW2". During the lead-up to the Allied invasion of Normandy , many new tactics in psychological warfare were devised. The plan for Operation Bodyguard set out

4752-678: The Middle East. Their posts, primarily in Arabic, Farsi and Russian, criticized Iran, China and Russia and gave pro-Western narratives. Data suggested the activity was a series of covert campaigns rather than a single operation. In operations in the South and East China Seas, both the United States and China have been engaged in " cognitive warfare ", which involves displays of force, staged photographs and sharing disinformation. The start of

4851-456: The Mongol generals fulfilled their threats and massacred the survivors. Tales of the encroaching horde spread to the next villages and created an aura of insecurity that undermined the possibility of future resistance. Genghis Khan also employed tactics that made his numbers seem greater than they actually were. During night operations he ordered each soldier to light three torches at dusk to give

4950-580: The US involvement in the Vietnam War was unjust and immoral. A typical broadcast began as follows: How are you, GI Joe? It seems to me that most of you are poorly informed about the going of the war, to say nothing about a correct explanation of your presence over here. Nothing is more confused than to be ordered into a war to die or to be maimed for life without the faintest idea of what's going on. The CIA made extensive use of Contra soldiers to destabilize

5049-510: The United States also used tapes of distorted human sounds and played them during the night making the Vietnamese soldiers think that the dead were back for revenge. The Vietcong and their forces also used a program of psychological warfare during this war. Trịnh Thị Ngọ, also known as Thu Hương and Hanoi Hannah , was a Vietnamese radio personality. She made English-language broadcasts for North Vietnam directed at United States troops. During

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5148-794: The United States used the shock and awe campaign to psychologically maim and break the will of the Iraqi Army to fight. In cyberspace, social media has enabled the use of disinformation on a wide scale. Analysts have found evidence of doctored or misleading photographs spread by social media in the Syrian Civil War and 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine , possibly with state involvement. Military and governments have engaged in psychological operations (PSYOP) and informational warfare (IW) on social networking platforms to regulate foreign propaganda, which includes countries like

5247-529: The Vietnam War, Ngọ became famous among US soldiers for her propaganda broadcasts on Radio Hanoi. Her scripts were written by the North Vietnamese Army and were intended to frighten and shame the soldiers into leaving their posts. She made three broadcasts a day, reading a list of newly killed or imprisoned Americans, and playing popular US anti-war songs in an effort to incite feelings of nostalgia and homesickness, attempting to persuade US GIs that

5346-554: The action of French forces in operation with local actors and thus gaining their trust: direct aid to the populations, management of reconstruction sites, actions of communication of influence with the population, elites and local elected officials". The center has capacities for analysis, influence, expertise and instruction. In the German Bundeswehr , the Zentrum Operative Kommunikation

5445-519: The advocate on the opposite side had spoken, the judges decided in favor of Bias's client, by which time Bias had died. The city gave him a magnificent funeral and inscribed on his tomb: Here Bias of Priene lies, whose name Brought to his home and all Ionia fame. It is said that Bias wrote a poem of 2000 lines on Ionia and the way to make it prosperous. Many sayings were attributed to him by Diogenes Laërtius and by others: In April 1819, Schopenhauer wrote in his Reisebuch [Travel Diary]: "In

5544-439: The aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions. The study of ethical value is also included in value theory . In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology , behavioral economics , business ethics , corporate governance , moral philosophy , political sciences , social psychology , sociology and theology . Ethical value

5643-420: The battle for world opinion ; they had one of the world's most reputable news systems, with much experience in international and cross-cultural communication, and they controlled much of the undersea communications cable system then in operation. These capabilities were easily transitioned to the task of warfare. The British also had a diplomatic service that maintained good relations with many nations around

5742-403: The beliefs, and attitudes of the students. Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to. If a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with

5841-623: The cinema. In 1918, Viscount Northcliffe was appointed Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries. The department was split between propaganda against Germany organized by H.G Wells, and propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Empire supervised by Wickham Steed and Robert William Seton-Watson ; the attempts of the latter focused on the lack of ethnic cohesion in the Empire and stoked the grievances of minorities such as

5940-701: The city unopposed. During the Attack on Marstrand in 1719, Peter Tordenskjold carried out military deception against the Swedes. Although probably apocryphal, he apparently succeeded in making his small force appear larger and feed disinformation to his opponents, similar to the Operations Fortitude and Titanic in World War II. The start of modern psychological operations in war is generally dated to World War I . By that point, Western societies were increasingly educated and urbanized, and mass media

6039-422: The consequences of it. Philosophical value is distinguished from economic value , since it is independent from some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low. Nevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In

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6138-493: The content of television programs as a service. Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations. Values are generally received through cultural means, especially diffusion and transmission or socialization from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values. For example, parents in

6237-660: The cultural values of the countries of the world along two dimensions: The traditional versus secular-rational values reflect the transition from a religious understanding of the world to a dominance of science and bureaucracy. The second dimension named survival values versus self-expression values represents the transition from industrial society to post-industrial society . Cultures can be distinguished as tight and loose in relation to how much they adhere to social norms and tolerates deviance. Tight cultures are more restrictive, with stricter disciplinary measures for norm violations while loose cultures have weaker social norms and

6336-497: The degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live ( normative ethics ), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs ; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on

6435-495: The early Qin dynasty and late Eastern Zhou dynasty in 1st century AD China, the Empty Fort Strategy was used to trick the enemy into believing that an empty location was an ambush, in order to prevent them from attacking it using reverse psychology . This tactic also relied on luck, should the enemy believe that the location is a threat to them. In the 6th century BCE Greek Bias of Priene successfully resisted

6534-474: The end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity. Instrumental value conditionality in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible. In many life stances it

6633-660: The ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" ( noun sense). Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity " are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include moral values, doctrinal or ideological values, social values, and aesthetic values. It

6732-403: The examples of his great goodness is the legend that says that Bias paid a ransom for some women who had been taken prisoner. After educating them as his own daughters, he sent them back to Messina , their homeland, and to their fathers. Bias is said to have died at a very advanced age while pleading a cause for his client. After he had finished speaking, he rested his head on his grandson. When

6831-588: The field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. EU policies based on the notion of "cultural exception" can become juxtaposed with the liberal policy of "cultural specificity" in English-speaking countries. Indeed, international law traditionally treats films as property and

6930-558: The group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law. Furthermore, cultural values can be expressed at a global level through institutions participating in the global economy . For example, values important to global governance can include leadership, legitimacy, and efficiency. Within our current global governance architecture, leadership

7029-452: The idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; "we can speak as much as we want about "life" and " its meaning ", and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will". Philosophic value may be split into instrumental value and intrinsic values . An instrumental value

7128-462: The illusion of an overwhelming army and deceive and intimidate enemy scouts. He also sometimes had objects tied to the tails of his horses, so that riding on open and dry fields raised a cloud of dust that gave the enemy the impression of great numbers. His soldiers used arrows specially notched to whistle as they flew through the air, creating a terrifying noise. Another tactic favored by the Mongols

7227-402: The leaflet-dropping pilots, prompting the British to develop unmanned leaflet balloons that drifted across no-man's land . At least one in seven of these leaflets were not handed in by the soldiers to their superiors, despite severe penalties for that offence. Even General Hindenburg admitted that "Unsuspectingly, many thousands consumed the poison", and POWs admitted to being disillusioned by

7326-646: The most "devoted actors" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary. From the perspective of utilitarianism , protected values are biases when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals. According to Jonathan Baron and Mark Spranca, protected values arise from norms as described in theories of deontological ethics (the latter often being referred to in context with Immanuel Kant ). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just

7425-408: The other hand, there are theories of the existence of absolute values , which can also be termed noumenal values (and not to be confused with mathematical absolute value ). An absolute value can be described as philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. Ludwig Wittgenstein was pessimistic about

7524-573: The propaganda leaflets that depicted the use of German troops as mere cannon fodder . In 1915, the British began airdropping a regular leaflet newspaper Le Courrier de l'Air for civilians in German-occupied France and Belgium. At the start of the war, the French government took control of the media to suppress negative coverage. Only in 1916, with the establishment of the Maison de la Presse, did they begin to use similar tactics for

7623-567: The public use of " cognitive warfare " as a clear movement occurred in 2013 with China's political rhetoric. Most modern uses of the term psychological warfare refer to the following military methods: Most of these techniques were developed during World War II or earlier, and have been used to some degree in every conflict since. Daniel Lerner was in the OSS (the predecessor to the American CIA) and in his book, attempts to analyze how effective

7722-402: The purpose of psychological warfare. One of its sections was the "Service de la Propagande aérienne" (Aerial Propaganda Service), headed by Professor Tonnelat and Jean-Jacques Waltz , an Alsatian artist code-named " Hansi ". The French tended to distribute leaflets of images only, although the full publication of US President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points , which had been heavily edited in

7821-560: The real battleground for nearly seven weeks. The United States ran an extensive program of psychological warfare during the Vietnam War . The Phoenix Program had the dual aim of assassinating National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF or Viet Cong ) personnel and terrorizing any potential sympathizers or passive supporters. During the Phoenix Program, over 19,000 NLF supporters were killed. In Operation Wandering Soul ,

7920-728: The real invasion force. At the same time Operation Titanic involved the RAF dropping fake paratroopers to the east and west of the Normandy landings. The deceptions were implemented with the use of double agents, radio traffic and visual deception. The British " Double Cross " anti-espionage operation had proven very successful from the outset of the war, and the LCS was able to use double agents to send back misleading information about Allied invasion plans. The use of visual deception, including mock tanks and other military hardware had been developed during

8019-521: The remaining three being binding foundations . The moral foundations were found to be correlated with the theory of basic human values. The strong correlations are between conservatives values and binding foundations. Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas. Values clarification differs from cognitive moral education : Respect Values relate to

8118-583: The resonating projections of his orations for effect. Germany's Fall Grün plan of invasion of Czechoslovakia had a large part dealing with psychological warfare aimed both at the Czechoslovak civilians and government as well as, crucially, at Czechoslovakia's allies. It became successful to the point that Germany gained the acquiescence of the British and French governments to the German occupation of Czechoslovakia without having to fight an all-out war, sustaining only minimum losses in covert war before

8217-477: The results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them. Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views . Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed

8316-550: The same time introducing news material that would weaken their morale under a veneer of authenticity. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made use of radio broadcasts for propaganda against the Germans. Churchill favoured deception; he said "In wartime, truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies.". During World War II, the British made extensive use of deception – developing many new techniques and theories. The main protagonists at this time were 'A' Force, set up in 1940 under Dudley Clarke , and

8415-458: The target country's capability to function. Terrorism is a strategy that aims to influence public opinion into pressuring leaders to give in to the terrorists' demands, and the population becomes a tool to advance the political agenda. According to U.S. military analysts, attacking the enemy's mind is an important element of the People's Republic of China 's military strategy. This type of warfare

8514-443: The use of mass propaganda to influence the minds of the German population in the decades to come. By calling his movement The Third Reich, he was able to convince many civilians that his cause was not just a fad, but the way of their future. Joseph Goebbels was appointed as Propaganda Minister when Hitler came to power in 1933, and he portrayed Hitler as a messianic figure for the redemption of Germany. Hitler also coupled this with

8613-428: The value of patriotism . Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest respect at a funeral. Different cultures represent values differently and to different levels of emphasis. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others." Values seemed to have changed, affecting

8712-665: The values related to openness-to-change (openness especially with self-direction, extraversion especially with stimulation); agreeableness correlates with self-transcendence values (especially benevolence); extraversion is correlated with self-enhancement and negatively with traditional values. Conscientiousness correlates with achievement, conformity and security. Men are found to value achievement, self-direction, hedonism, and stimulation more than women, while women value benevolence, universality and tradition higher. The order of Schwartz's traits are substantially stability amongst adults over time. Migrants values change when they move to

8811-474: The various strategies were. He concludes that there is little evidence that any of them were dramatically successful, except perhaps surrender instructions over loudspeakers when victory was imminent. Measuring the success or failure of psychological warfare is very hard, as the conditions are very far from being a controlled experiment. Lerner also divides psychological warfare operations into three categories: Lerner says grey and black operations ultimately have

8910-433: The welfare and survival of groups The intensity of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value. It should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of instrumental value conditionality . For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being

9009-547: The world, in contrast to the reputation of the German services. While German attempts to foment revolution in parts of the British Empire , such as Ireland and India , were ineffective, extensive experience in the Middle East allowed the British to successfully induce the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire . In August 1914, David Lloyd George appointed a Member of Parliament (MP), Charles Masterman , to head

9108-617: The world. Since prehistoric times, warlords and chiefs have recognized the importance of weakening the morale of their opponents. According to Polyaenus , in the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) between the Persian Empire and ancient Egypt , the Persian forces used cats and other animals as a psychological tactic against the Egyptians, who avoided harming cats due to religious belief and superstitions. Currying favor with supporters

9207-409: Was a Greek sage. He is widely accepted as one of the Seven Sages of Greece and was renowned for his probity. Bias was born at Priene (modern-day Güllübahçe , Turkey ), and was the son of Teutamus. He is said to have been distinguished for his skill as an advocate, and for his use of it in defence of the right. In reference to which Demodocus of Leros uttered the following saying: "If you are

9306-525: Was available in the form of large circulation newspapers and posters. It was also possible to transmit propaganda to the enemy via the use of airborne leaflets or through explosive delivery systems like modified artillery or mortar rounds. At the start of the war, the belligerents, especially the British and Germans, began distributing propaganda, both domestically and on the Western front . The British had several advantages that allowed them to succeed in

9405-508: Was catapulting severed human heads over city walls to frighten the inhabitants and spread disease in the besieged city's closed confines. This was especially used by the later Turko-Mongol chieftain. The Muslim caliph Omar , in his battles against the Byzantine Empire , sent small reinforcements in the form of a continuous stream, giving the impression that a large force would accumulate eventually if not swiftly dealt with. During

9504-695: Was in giving the Russian revolutionary, Lenin , free transit on a sealed train from Switzerland to Finland after the overthrow of the Tsar . This soon paid off when the Bolshevik Revolution took Russia out of the war. Adolf Hitler was greatly influenced by the psychological warfare tactics the Allies employed during World War I, and attributed Germany's defeat in the conflict to the effects this tactics had on German troops. He became committed to

9603-456: Was predominantly one of truth (with certain exceptions). In Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes , Jacques Ellul discusses psychological warfare as a common peace policy practice between nations as a form of indirect aggression. This type of propaganda drains the public opinion of an opposing regime by stripping away its power on public opinion. This form of aggression is hard to defend against because no international court of justice

9702-475: Was the case, through fictional field armies , faked operations to prepare the ground for invasion and "leaked" misinformation about the Allied order of battle and war plans. Elaborate naval deceptions (Operations Glimmer , Taxable and Big Drum ) were undertaken in the English Channel. Small ships and aircraft simulated invasion fleets lying off Pas de Calais, Cap d'Antifer and the western flank of

9801-624: Was the other side of psychological warfare, and an early practitioner of this was Alexander the Great , who successfully conquered large parts of Europe and the Middle East and held on to his territorial gains by co-opting local elites into the Greek administration and culture. Alexander left some of his men behind in each conquered city to introduce Greek culture and oppress dissident views. His soldiers were paid dowries to marry locals in an effort to encourage assimilation . Genghis Khan , leader of

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