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92-707: Ptolemy , a general and one of the somatophylakes (bodyguard companions) of Alexander the Great , was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC he declared himself Pharaoh Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter "Saviour". The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. The new dynasty adopted the Egyptian titles and iconography, showing respect to local traditions, while also preserving their own Greek language and culture. The Ptolemaic period

184-578: A gastric balloon or surgery may be performed to reduce stomach volume or length of the intestines, leading to feeling full earlier, or a reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food. Many do not realize that metabolic surgery is not only about reducing intake, it has also been shown to alter gut hormones for a period of time. Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children . In 2022, over 1 billion people lived with obesity worldwide (879 million adults and 159 million children), representing more than

276-509: A tomb was constructed for them. Shortly after this event, Ptolemy openly joined the coalition against Perdiccas. Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aiming for the throne himself, and may have decided that Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy executed Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas; this removed the chief check on his authority, and allowed Ptolemy to obtain the huge sum that Cleomenes had accumulated. In 321 BC, Perdiccas attempted to invade Egypt, only to fall at

368-777: A 'rebel in Cyprus' who was put to death by his half-brother Ptolemy II –as well as the daughters Ptolemais, who married Demetrius I of Macedon , and Lysandra , first married to Alexander V of Macedon and after to Lysimachus' son Agathocles . Ptolemy married once more to Berenice , Eurydice's cousin, who had come to Egypt as Eurydice's lady-in-waiting with the children from her first marriage to Philip . Their children were Arsinoe II , Philotera , and Ptolemy II. Their eldest child Arsinoe married Lysimachus, then her half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, and finally her full brother Ptolemy II. In 285, Ptolemy made his son Ptolemy II his co-regent. His eldest legitimate son, Ptolemy Keraunos, fled to

460-658: A 1.67-fold greater risk of obesity compared with those without the risk allele . The differences in BMI between people that are due to genetics varies depending on the population examined from 6% to 85%. Obesity is a major feature in several syndromes, such as Prader–Willi syndrome , Bardet–Biedl syndrome , Cohen syndrome , and MOMO syndrome . (The term "non-syndromic obesity" is sometimes used to exclude these conditions.) In people with early-onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before 10 years of age and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7% harbor

552-477: A BMI of 30–35 kg/m reduces life expectancy by two to four years, while severe obesity (BMI ≥ 40 kg/m ) reduces life expectancy by ten years. Obesity increases the risk of many physical and mental conditions. These comorbidities are most commonly shown in metabolic syndrome , a combination of medical disorders which includes: diabetes mellitus type 2 , high blood pressure , high blood cholesterol , and high triglyceride levels . A study from

644-734: A claim to Judea in southern Syria , which was disputed with the Seleucid king Seleucus I . He also took control of Cyprus and Cyrenaica , the latter of which was placed under the control of Ptolemy's stepson Magas . Ptolemy also commanded the construction of the Library of Alexandria and of the Lighthouse of Alexandria , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Ptolemy I may have married Thaïs , his mistress during

736-494: A distinctly unheroic role in proceedings to Perdiccas. More recently, J. Roisman has argued that the case for Ptolemy's blackening of Perdiccas and others has been much exaggerated. Ptolemy personally sponsored the great mathematician Euclid . He found Euclid's seminal work, the Elements , too difficult to study, so he asked if there were an easier way to master it. According to Proclus , Euclid famously quipped: "Sire, there

828-570: A double of adult cases (and four times higher than cases among children) registered in 1990. Obesity is more common in women than in men. Today, obesity is stigmatized in most of the world. Conversely, some cultures, past and present, have a favorable view of obesity, seeing it as a symbol of wealth and fertility. The World Health Organization , the US, Canada, Japan, Portugal, Germany, the European Parliament and medical societies, e.g.

920-539: A fleet which detached the coastal towns of Phaselis , Xanthos , Kaunos , Iasos and Myndus in Lycia and Caria from Antigonus, then crossed into Greece, where he took possession of Corinth , Sicyon and Megara (308 BC). In 306, a great fleet under Demetrius attacked Cyprus, and Ptolemy's brother Menelaus was defeated and captured in another decisive Battle of Salamis . Ptolemy's complete loss of Cyprus followed. The satraps Antigonus and Demetrius now each assumed

1012-480: A great seat of Greek culture . Ptolemy I was the son of Arsinoe of Macedon by either her husband Lagus or Philip II of Macedon , the father of Alexander. However, the latter is unlikely and may be a myth fabricated to glorify the Ptolemaic Dynasty . Ptolemy was one of Alexander's most trusted companions and military officers. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Ptolemy retrieved his body as it

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1104-671: A greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home. In children, there appear to be declines in levels of physical activity (with particularly strong declines in the amount of walking and physical education), likely due to safety concerns, changes in social interaction (such as fewer relationships with neighborhood children), and inadequate urban design (such as too few public spaces for safe physical activity). World trends in active leisure time physical activity are less clear. The World Health Organization indicates people worldwide are taking up less active recreational pursuits, while research from Finland found an increase and research from

1196-586: A high social class were less likely to be obese. No significant differences were seen among men of different social classes. In the developing world, women, men, and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity. In 2007 repeating the same research found the same relationships, but they were weaker. The decrease in strength of correlation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization . Among developed countries, levels of adult obesity, and percentage of teenage children who are overweight, are correlated with income inequality . A similar relationship

1288-757: A lack of physical activity as the cause of most cases of obesity. A limited number of cases are due primarily to genetics, medical reasons, or psychiatric illness. In contrast, increasing rates of obesity at a societal level are felt to be due to an easily accessible and palatable diet, increased reliance on cars , and mechanized manufacturing. Some other factors have been proposed as causes towards rising rates of obesity worldwide, including insufficient sleep , endocrine disruptors , increased usage of certain medications (such as atypical antipsychotics ), increases in ambient temperature, decreased rates of smoking , demographic changes, increasing maternal age of first-time mothers, changes to epigenetic dysregulation from

1380-564: A lower BMI than Caucasians , some nations have redefined obesity; Japan has defined obesity as any BMI greater than 25 kg/m while China uses a BMI of greater than 28 kg/m . The preferred obesity metric in scholarly circles is the body fat percentage (BF%) – the ratio of the total weight of person's fat to his or her body weight, and BMI is viewed merely as a way to approximate BF%. According to American Society of Bariatric Physicians , levels in excess of 32% for women and 25% for men are generally considered to indicate obesity. BMI

1472-424: A majority of people living with obesity at any given time attempt to lose weight and are often successful, maintaining weight loss long-term is rare. There is no effective, well-defined, evidence-based intervention for preventing obesity. Obesity prevention requires a complex approach, including interventions at medical, societal, community, family, and individual levels. Changes to diet as well as exercising are

1564-633: A man's risk increases by 4% per child. This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents. In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China overall rates of obesity are below 5%; however, in some cities rates of obesity are greater than 20%. In part, this may be because of urban design issues (such as inadequate public spaces for physical activity). Time spent in motor vehicles, as opposed to active transportation options such as cycling or walking,

1656-450: A multidisciplinary team rather than "eat less, move more" being the answer as for most living with obesity, diet & exercise have failed them countless times. There is now a scientific realization where 5% of people with this disease are able to lose & maintain loss through this method as the body will adapt & reach a plateau where for most, it begins to push back towards set point. Also that bodies react differently to energy. So too

1748-470: A number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese , while sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes and swollen necks. Familial Graves' disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence ( exophthalmos ), although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. This is all likely due to inbreeding depression . In view of the familial nature of these findings, members of

1840-404: A phenomenon known as the obesity survival paradox. The paradox was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing hemodialysis and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure and peripheral artery disease (PAD). In people with heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with a normal weight. This has been attributed to

1932-495: A significant effect on an individual's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years. However, changing rates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity. In the United States, the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's risk increases by 7% per child, while

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2024-950: A single point DNA mutation. Studies that have focused on inheritance patterns rather than on specific genes have found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were also obese, in contrast to less than 10% of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight. Different people exposed to the same environment have different risks of obesity due to their underlying genetics. The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that, due to dietary scarcity during human evolution, people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would be more likely to survive famine . This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies. This theory has received various criticisms, and other evolutionarily-based theories such as

2116-553: Is an indication that gut flora can affect the metabolic potential. This apparent alteration is believed to confer a greater capacity to harvest energy contributing to obesity. Whether these differences are the direct cause or the result of obesity has yet to be determined unequivocally. The use of antibiotics among children has also been associated with obesity later in life. An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to

2208-571: Is believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity and to an increased risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes . Vitamin D deficiency is related to diseases associated with obesity. As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense , big-portions, and fast-food meals, the association between fast-food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning. In the United States, consumption of fast-food meals tripled and food energy intake from these meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995. Agricultural policy and techniques in

2300-462: Is correlated with increased risk of obesity. Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world . Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more food energy becomes available. The study of the effect of infectious agents on metabolism is still in its early stages. Gut flora has been shown to differ between lean and obese people. There

2392-410: Is no Royal Road to geometry ." Obesity Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease , in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative effects on health . People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30  kg / m ;

2484-897: Is not regarded as a psychiatric disorder, and therefore is not listed in the DSM-IVR as a psychiatric illness. The risk of overweight and obesity is higher in patients with psychiatric disorders than in persons without psychiatric disorders. Obesity and depression influence each other mutually, with obesity increasing the risk of clinical depression, and also depression leading to a higher chance of developing obesity. Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition ; these include insulin , sulfonylureas , thiazolidinediones , atypical antipsychotics , antidepressants , steroids , certain anticonvulsants ( phenytoin and valproate ), pizotifen , and some forms of hormonal contraception . While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they cannot completely explain

2576-414: Is now viewed as outdated in numerous countries. It ignores variations between individuals in amounts of lean body mass, particularly muscle mass. Individuals involved in heavy physical labor or sports may have high BMI values despite having little fat. For example, more than half of all NFL players are classified as "obese" (BMI ≥ 30), and 1 in 4 are classified as "extremely obese" (BMI ≥ 35), according to

2668-451: Is seen among US states: more adults, even in higher social classes, are obese in more unequal states. Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is thought that in developed countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they are under greater social pressure to remain slim, and have more opportunities along with greater expectations for physical fitness . In undeveloped countries

2760-445: Is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another study found that if one takes into account chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in those with PAD, the benefit of obesity no longer exists. The " a calorie is a calorie " model of obesity posits a combination of excessive food energy intake and

2852-403: Is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter room and by direct observation. A sedentary lifestyle may play a significant role in obesity. Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work, and currently at least 30% of the world's population gets insufficient exercise. This is primarily due to increasing use of mechanized transportation and

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2944-549: Is the result of an interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose to obesity when sufficient food energy is present. As of 2006, more than 41 of these sites on the human genome have been linked to the development of obesity when a favorable environment is present. People with two copies of the FTO gene (fat mass and obesity associated gene) have been found on average to weigh 3–4 kg more and have

3036-540: The American Medical Association , classify obesity as a disease. Others, such as the UK , do not. Obesity is typically defined as a substantial accumulation of body fat that could impact health. Medical organizations tend to classify people living with obesity as based on body mass index (BMI) – a ratio of a person's weight in kilograms to the square of their height in meters . For adults,

3128-482: The Cup of the Ptolemies represent the regnal dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were often also their sisters, aunts or cousins. Several queens exercised regal authority. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra ("Cleopatra VII Philopator", 51–30 BC), with her two brothers and her son serving as successive nominal co-rulers . Several systems exist for numbering

3220-500: The Endocrine Society , there is "growing evidence suggesting that obesity is a disorder of the energy homeostasis system, rather than simply arising from the passive accumulation of excess weight". Excess appetite for palatable, high-calorie food (especially fat, sugar, and certain animal proteins) is seen as the primary factor driving obesity worldwide, likely because of imbalances in neurotransmitters affecting

3312-496: The RAK Hospital found that obese people are at a greater risk of developing long COVID . The CDC has found that obesity is the single strongest risk factor for severe COVID-19 illness. Complications are either directly caused by obesity or indirectly related through mechanisms sharing a common cause such as a poor diet or a sedentary lifestyle . The strength of the link between obesity and specific conditions varies. One of

3404-608: The Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties. Henceforth, Ptolemy seems to have involved himself as little as possible in the rivalries between Asia Minor and Greece ; he lost what he held in Greece, but reconquered Cyprus in 295/294. Cyrenaica , after a series of rebellions, was finally subjugated in about 300 and placed under his stepson Magas . While Alexander was alive, Ptolemy had three children with his mistress Thaïs , who may also have been his wife: Lagus; Leontiscus; and Eirene, who

3496-513: The World Health Organization (WHO) defines " overweight " as a BMI 25 or higher, and "obesity" as a BMI 30 or higher. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) further subdivides obesity based on BMI, with a BMI 30 to 35 called class 1 obesity; 35 to 40, class 2 obesity; and 40+, class 3 obesity. For children, obesity measures take age into consideration along with height and weight. For children aged 5–19,

3588-543: The drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed. Certain physical and mental illnesses and the pharmaceutical substances used to treat them can increase risk of obesity. Medical illnesses that increase obesity risk include several rare genetic syndromes (listed above) as well as some congenital or acquired conditions: hypothyroidism , Cushing's syndrome , growth hormone deficiency , and some eating disorders such as binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome . However, obesity

3680-599: The BMI metric. However, their mean body fat percentage , 14%, is well within what is considered a healthy range. Similarly, Sumo wrestlers may be categorized by BMI as "severely obese" or "very severely obese" but many Sumo wrestlers are not categorized as obese when body fat percentage is used instead (having <25% body fat). Some Sumo wrestlers were found to have no more body fat than a non-Sumo comparison group, with high BMI values resulting from their high amounts of lean body mass. Canada utilises BMI sparingly within their method of defining levels of obesity through use of

3772-655: The BioSHaRE– EU Healthy Obese Project (sponsored by Maelstrom Research, a team under the Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre ) came up with two definitions for healthy obesity , one more strict and one less so: To come up with these criteria, BioSHaRE controlled for age and tobacco use, researching how both may effect the metabolic syndrome associated with obesity, but not found to exist in

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3864-489: The Edmonton Scale (for adult obesity). This scale also introduces factors such as Quality of Life, Mental Health & Mobility amongst others. In recent years, Canada chose to allow both Chilli & Ireland to adapt their obesity guidelines to suit both countries' health systems. In Ireland, obesity is now defined as "a Complex, Chronic & Relapsing Disease". Therefore it is now viewed as requiring intervention from

3956-815: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy I Soter ( / ˈ t ɒ l əm i / ; Greek : Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ , Ptolemaîos Sōtḗr , "Ptolemy

4048-486: The Great Library of Alexandria . The Ptolemaic dynasty which he founded ruled Egypt for nearly three hundred years. It was a Hellenistic kingdom known for its capital Alexandria, which became a center of Greek culture . Ptolemaic rule ended with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Ptolemy himself wrote an eyewitness history of Alexander's campaigns (now lost). In the second century AD, Ptolemy's history

4140-727: The Great. On his deathbed , Alexander wished to be buried at the Temple of Zeus Ammon in the Siwa Oasis of ancient Libya instead of the royal tombs of Aigai in Macedon. However, his successors including Perdiccas attempted to bury his body in Macedon instead. In late 322 or early 321 BC, Alexander's body was in Syria, on its way to Macedon, when it was captured by Ptolemy I. He brought Alexander's remains back to Egypt, interring them at Memphis , but they were later moved to Alexandria where

4232-1772: The Ptolemaic dynasty are likely to have suffered from a multi-organ fibrotic condition such as Erdheim–Chester disease , or a familial multifocal fibrosclerosis where thyroiditis, obesity and ocular proptosis may have all occurred concurrently. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

4324-571: The Savior "; c. 367 BC – January 282 BC) was a Macedonian Greek general, historian, and successor of Alexander the Great who went on to found the Ptolemaic Kingdom centered on Egypt . Ptolemy was basileus and pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 305/304 BC to his death in 282 BC, and his descendants continued to rule Egypt until 30 BC. During their rule, Egypt became a thriving bastion of Hellenistic civilization and Alexandria

4416-527: The United States and Europe have led to lower food prices . In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables. Calorie count laws and nutrition facts labels attempt to steer people toward making healthier food choices, including awareness of how much food energy is being consumed. Obese people consistently under-report their food consumption as compared to people of normal weight. This

4508-455: The United States found leisure-time physical activity has not changed significantly. Physical activity in children may not be a significant contributor. In both children and adults, there is an association between television viewing time and the risk of obesity. Increased media exposure increases the rate of childhood obesity, with rates increasing proportionally to time spent watching television. Like many other medical conditions, obesity

4600-894: The United States increased from 14.5% to 30.9%. During the same period, an increase occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase was 335 calories (1,400 kJ) per day (1,542 calories (6,450 kJ) in 1971 and 1,877 calories (7,850 kJ) in 2004), while for men the average increase was 168 calories (700 kJ) per day (2,450 calories (10,300 kJ) in 1971 and 2,618 calories (10,950 kJ) in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fat consumption. The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in America, and potato chips. Consumption of sweetened beverages such as soft drinks, fruit drinks, and iced tea

4692-628: The WHO defines obesity as a BMI two standard deviations above the median for their age (a BMI around 18 for a five-year old; around 30 for a 19-year old). For children under five, the WHO defines obesity as a weight three standard deviations above the median for their height. Some modifications to the WHO definitions have been made by particular organizations. The surgical literature breaks down class II and III or only class III obesity into further categories whose exact values are still disputed. As Asian populations develop negative health consequences at

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4784-450: The ability to afford food, high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring a larger body size are believed to contribute to the observed patterns. Attitudes toward body weight held by people in one's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time has been found among friends, siblings, and spouses. Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk of obesity. Smoking has

4876-471: The association of BMI and waist circumference with mortality is U- or J-shaped, while the association between waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio with mortality is more positive. In Asians the risk of negative health effects begins to increase between 22 and 25 kg/m . In 2021, the World Health Organization estimated that obesity caused at least 2.8 million deaths annually. On average, obesity reduces life expectancy by six to seven years,

4968-540: The author "whom I chiefly follow", and in his Preface writes that Ptolemy seemed to him to be a particularly trustworthy source, "not only because he was present with Alexander on campaign, but also because he was himself a king, and hence lying would be more dishonourable for him than for anyone else". Ptolemy's lost history was long considered an objective work, distinguished by its straightforward honesty and sobriety, but more recent work has called this assessment into question. R. M. Errington argued that Ptolemy's history

5060-490: The benefits towards "healthier living" having physical benefits without dynamic shifts on the scales. Plus living with stigma surrounding the shape of one's body or actual treatments for the disease of obesity, be they medicinal or surgical, has been shown to greatly exacerbate the issue. Obesity increases a person's risk of developing various metabolic diseases, cardiovascular disease , osteoarthritis , Alzheimer disease , depression , and certain types of cancer. Depending on

5152-446: The body's response to insulin, potentially leading to insulin resistance . Increased fat also creates a proinflammatory state , and a prothrombotic state. Newer research has focused on methods of identifying healthier obese people by clinicians, and not treating obese people as a monolithic group. Obese people who do not experience medical complications from their obesity are sometimes called (metabolically) healthy obese , but

5244-464: The campaign against the rebel Bessus whom his own guards captured and handed over to Ptolemy, who then handed him over to Alexander for execution. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to have instigated the settlement of the empire made at Babylon . Through the Partition of Babylon , he was appointed satrap of Egypt , under the nominal kings Philip III and the infant Alexander IV ;

5336-561: The childless marriage of siblings Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II being an exception. The first child-producing incestuous marriage in the Ptolemaic dynasty was that of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III , who were succeeded as co-pharaohs by their son Ptolemy V , born 210 BC. The best-known Ptolemaic pharaoh, Cleopatra VII , was at different times married to and ruled with two of her brothers ( Ptolemy XIII until 47 BC and then Ptolemy XIV until 44 BC), and their parents were also likely to have been siblings or possibly cousins. Contemporaries describe

5428-474: The city of Alexandria founded by Alexander the Great would gradually surpass Athens taking its place as the intellectual centre of the Mediterranean world. To emulate the previous dynasties of Egypt, the Ptolemaic dynasty eventually adopted the practice of inbreeding including sibling marriage ; this did not start in earnest until nearly a century into the dynasty's history. All the male rulers of

5520-483: The court of Lysimachus. Ptolemy I died in January 282 aged 84 or 85. Shrewd and cautious, he had a compact and well-ordered realm to show at the end of forty years of war. His reputation for good nature and liberality attached the floating soldier-class of Macedonians and other Greeks to his service, and was not insignificant; nor did he wholly neglect conciliation of the natives. He was a ready patron of letters, founding

5612-587: The degree of obesity and the presence of comorbid disorders, obesity is associated with an estimated 2–20 year shorter life expectancy. High BMI is a marker of risk for, but not a direct cause of, diseases caused by diet and physical activity. Obesity is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide. The mortality risk is lowest at a BMI of 20–25 kg/m in non-smokers and at 24–27 kg/m in current smokers, with risk increasing along with changes in either direction. This appears to apply in at least four continents. Other research suggests that

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5704-517: The dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally. Though it is accepted that energy consumption in excess of energy expenditure leads to increases in body weight on an individual basis, the cause of the shifts in these two factors on the societal scale is much debated. There are a number of theories as to the cause but most believe it is a combination of various factors. The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. Research in 1989 found that in developed countries women of

5796-517: The drive to eat. Dietary energy supply per capita varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time. From the early 1970s to the late 1990s the average food energy available per person per day (the amount of food bought) increased in all parts of the world except Eastern Europe. The United States had the highest availability with 3,654 calories (15,290 kJ) per person in 1996. This increased further in 2003 to 3,754 calories (15,710 kJ). During

5888-552: The dynasty took the name Ptolemy , while queens regnant were all called Cleopatra , Arsinoe , or Berenice . The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII , known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey , and later between Octavian and Mark Antony . Her apparent suicide after the Roman conquest of Egypt marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Dates in brackets on

5980-482: The environment, increased phenotypic variance via assortative mating , social pressure to diet , among others. According to one study, factors like these may play as big of a role as excessive food energy intake and a lack of physical activity; however, the relative magnitudes of the effects of any proposed cause of obesity is varied and uncertain, as there is a general need for randomized controlled trials on humans before definitive statement can be made. According to

6072-493: The existence of metabolically healthy obesity—the metabolically healthy obese are often found to have low amounts of ectopic fat (fat stored in tissues other than adipose tissue) despite having overall fat mass equivalent in weight to obese people with metabolic syndrome . Although the negative health consequences of obesity in the general population are well supported by the available research evidence, health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be improved at an increased BMI,

6164-667: The extent to which this group exists (especially among older people) is in dispute. The number of people considered metabolically healthy depends on the definition used, and there is no universally accepted definition. There are numerous obese people who have relatively few metabolic abnormalities, and a minority of obese people have no medical complications. The guidelines of the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists call for physicians to use risk stratification with obese patients when considering how to assess their risk of developing type 2 diabetes. In 2014,

6256-471: The fact that people often lose weight as they become progressively more ill. Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have heart disease. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, the risk of further cardiovascular events is increased. Even after cardiac bypass surgery , no increase in mortality

6348-527: The former satrap, the Greek Cleomenes , stayed on as his deputy. Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subjugate Cyrenaica . By custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Probably because he wanted to pre-empt Perdiccas , the imperial regent, from staking his claim in this way, Ptolemy took great pains in acquiring the body of Alexander

6440-463: The fugitive satrap of Babylonia, both invaded Syria, and defeated Demetrius I , the son of Antigonus, in the Battle of Gaza . Again he occupied Syria, and again—after only a few months, when Demetrius had won a battle over his general, and Antigonus entered Syria in force—he evacuated it. In 311, a peace was concluded between the combatants. Soon after this, the surviving 13-year-old king, Alexander IV,

6532-466: The half-brother of Alexander the Great . It is probable that this is a later myth fabricated to glorify the Ptolemaic dynasty. However, through his mother Ptolemy may have been a great-grandson of Amyntas I of Macedon , making him a member of the Argead royal house and a distant relative of Alexander, who was a great-great-grandson of Amyntas. Ptolemy served with Alexander from his first campaigns, and

6624-546: The hands of his own men. Ptolemy's decision to defend the Nile against Perdiccas ended in fiasco for Perdiccas, with the loss of 2,000 men. This failure was a fatal blow to Perdiccas' reputation, and he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates. Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide supplies to what had the day before been an enemy army. Ptolemy was offered the regency in place of Perdiccas, but he declined. Ptolemy

6716-485: The late 1990s, Europeans had 3,394 calories (14,200 kJ) per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2,648 calories (11,080 kJ) per person, and in sub-Saharan Africa people had 2,176 calories (9,100 kJ) per person. Total food energy consumption has been found to be related to obesity. The widespread availability of dietary guidelines has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice. From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in

6808-402: The later rulers; the one used here is the one most widely employed by modern scholars. Continuing the tradition established by previous Egyptian dynasties , the Ptolemies engaged in inbreeding including sibling marriage , with many of the pharaohs being married to their siblings and often co-ruling with them. Ptolemy I and other early rulers of the dynasty were not married to their relatives,

6900-545: The life of Alexander; he is known to have married the Persian noblewoman Artakama on Alexander's orders. He later married Eurydice , daughter of the Macedonian regent Antipater ; their sons Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager ruled in turn as kings of Macedon. Ptolemy's final marriage was to Eurydice's cousin and lady-in-waiting, Berenice I . Upon his death, he was succeeded by his son with Berenice, Ptolemy II . Ptolemy

6992-448: The main treatments recommended by health professionals. Diet quality can be improved by reducing the consumption of energy-dense foods, such as those high in fat or sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietary fiber , if these dietary choices are available, affordable, and accessible. Medications can be used, along with a suitable diet, to reduce appetite or decrease fat absorption. If diet, exercise, and medication are not effective,

7084-413: The metabolically healthy obese. Other definitions of metabolically healthy obesity exist, including ones based on waist circumference rather than BMI, which is unreliable in certain individuals. Another identification metric for health in obese people is calf strength , which is positively correlated with physical fitness in obese people. Body composition in general is hypothesized to help explain

7176-401: The news came that Antigonus had been defeated and slain by Lysimachus and Seleucus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301, he occupied Syria a fourth time. The other members of the coalition had assigned all Syria to Seleucus, after what they regarded as Ptolemy's desertion, and for the next hundred years, the question of the ownership of southern Syria (i.e., Judea) produced recurring warfare between

7268-675: The range 25–30  kg / m is defined as overweight . Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity. Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions , particularly cardiovascular diseases , type 2 diabetes , obstructive sleep apnea , certain types of cancer , and osteoarthritis . Obesity has individual, socioeconomic, and environmental causes. Some known causes are diet, physical activity, automation , urbanization , genetic susceptibility , medications , mental disorders , economic policies , endocrine disorders , and exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals . While

7360-493: The strongest is the link with type 2 diabetes . Excess body fat underlies 64% of cases of diabetes in men and 77% of cases in women. Health consequences fall into two broad categories: those attributable to the effects of increased fat mass (such as osteoarthritis , obstructive sleep apnea , social stigmatization) and those due to the increased number of fat cells ( diabetes , cancer , cardiovascular disease , non-alcoholic fatty liver disease ). Increases in body fat alter

7452-417: The title of king; Ptolemy, as well as Cassander , Lysimachus and Seleucus I Nicator , responded by doing the same. In the winter of 306 BC, Antigonus tried to follow up his victory in Cyprus by invading Egypt; but Ptolemy was strongest there, and successfully held the frontier against him. Ptolemy led no further overseas expeditions against Antigonus. However, he did send great assistance to Rhodes when it

7544-464: Was besieged by Demetrius (305/304) . The Rhodians granted divine honors to Ptolemy as a result of the lifting of the siege. When the coalition against Antigonus was renewed in 302, Ptolemy joined it, and invaded Syria a third time, while Antigonus was engaged with Lysimachus in Asia Minor . On hearing a report that Antigonus had won a decisive victory there, he once again evacuated Syria. But when

7636-545: Was among the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander. He played a principal part in the later campaigns in Afghanistan and India . He participated in the Battle of Issus , commanding troops on the left wing under the authority of Parmenion. Later he accompanied Alexander during his journey to the Oracle in the Siwa Oasis where he was proclaimed a son of Zeus . Ptolemy had his first independent command during

7728-591: Was born in 367 BC in the ancient kingdom of Macedon . His mother was Arsinoe . According to Satyrus the Peripatetic , Arsinoe was a descendant of Alexander I of Macedon and thus a member of the Argead dynasty , claiming ultimate descent from Heracles . Ostensibly, Ptolemy's father was Lagus , a Macedonian nobleman from Eordaea , but many ancient sources claim that he was actually an illegitimate son of Philip II of Macedon . If true, this would have made Ptolemy

7820-555: Was characterised by persistent bias and self-aggrandisement, and by systematic blackening of the reputation of Perdiccas , one of Ptolemy's chief dynastic rivals after Alexander's death. For example, Arrian's account of the fall of Thebes in 335 BC ( Anabasis 1.8.1–1.8.8 , a rare section of narrative explicitly attributed to Ptolemy by Arrian) shows several significant variations from the parallel account preserved in Diodorus Siculus ( 17.11–12 ), most notably in attributing

7912-418: Was consistent in his policy of securing a power base, while never succumbing to the temptation of risking all to succeed Alexander. In the long wars that followed between the different Diadochi , Ptolemy's first goal was to hold Egypt securely, and his second was to secure control in the outlying areas: Cyrenaica and Cyprus , as well as Syria , including the province of Judea . His first occupation of Syria

8004-494: Was en route to be buried in Macedon, placing it in Memphis instead, where it was later moved to Alexandria in a new tomb . Afterwards he joined a coalition against Perdiccas , the royal regent over Philip III of Macedon . The latter invaded Egypt but was assassinated by his own officers in 320 BC, allowing Ptolemy I to consolidate his control over the country. After a series of wars between Alexander's successors , Ptolemy gained

8096-504: Was given in marriage to Eunostos of Soloi in Cyprus. During the Susa weddings , Ptolemy married Persian noblewoman Artakama , as ordered by Alexander the Great. Around 322 BC , he married Eurydice , daughter of Antipater , regent of Macedonia. They had five children before she was repudiated: three sons– Ptolemy Ceraunus , king of Macedon from 281 BC to 279 BC ; his brother and successor Meleager , who ruled for two months in 279 BC; and

8188-474: Was in 318, and he established at the same time a protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus I , master of Asia in 315, showed expansionist ambitions, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him, and on the outbreak of war, evacuated Syria. In Cyprus, he fought the partisans of Antigonus, and re-conquered the island (313). A revolt in Cyrene was crushed the same year. In 312, Ptolemy and Seleucus ,

8280-624: Was marked by the intense interactions and blending of the Greek and Egyptian cultures. Under the Ptolemies, Hellenistic religion was largely shaped by religious syncretism and imperial cult . Elements of Greek education became widespread in urban spaces, culminating in the foundation of the Mouseion (including the Library of Alexandria ) and the Serapeum . During the Hellenistic period,

8372-471: Was murdered in Macedonia on the orders of Cassander, leaving the satrap of Egypt absolutely his own master. The peace did not last long, early in 310 he was informed that his ally Nicocles of Paphos was planning to defect to Antigonus; he sent some agents, who together with his brother Menelaus , who was still on Cyprus with an army, dealt with the situation, they surrounded Nicocles palace and forced him to commit suicide. In 309 Ptolemy personally commanded

8464-520: Was used by Arrian of Nicomedia as one of his two main primary sources (alongside the history of Aristobulus of Cassandreia ) for his own extant Anabasis of Alexander, and hence large parts of Ptolemy's history can be assumed to survive in paraphrase or précis in Arrian's work. Arrian cites Ptolemy by name on only a few occasions, but it is likely that large stretches of Arrian's Anabasis reflect Ptolemy's version of events. Arrian once names Ptolemy as

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