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106-670: Lycia ( Lycian : 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 Trm̃mis ; Greek : Λυκία , Lykia ; Turkish : Likya ) was a historical region in Anatolia from 15–14th centuries BC (as Lukka ) to 546 BC. It bordered the Mediterranean Sea in what is today the provinces of Antalya and Muğla in Turkey as well some inland parts of Burdur Province . The region was known to history from the Late Bronze Age records of ancient Egypt and

212-678: A satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus , from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus , Antiochia , Myndus , Laodicea , Alinda and Alabanda . Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule. During the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC),

318-573: A Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns: Theangela , Sibde , Medmasa , Euranium , Pedasa or Pedasum, and Telmissus . These with Myndus and Syangela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus. On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory ( Cape Krio ), also called Doris after

424-527: A bilingual showing individuals' names in Greek and Lycian as a key to transliterate the Lycian alphabet and determine the meaning of a few words. During the next century the number of texts increased, especially from the 1880s when Austrian expeditions systematically combed through the region. However, attempts to translate any but the most simple texts had to remain speculative, although combinatorial analysis of

530-542: A central building, and burned them up. Then, after taking an oath not to surrender, they died to a man fighting the Persians, foreshadowing and perhaps setting an example for Spartan conduct at the Battle of Thermopylae a few generations later. Archaeological evidence indicates there was a major fire on the acropolis of Xanthos in the mid-6th century BC but, as Antony Keen points out, there is no way to connect that fire with

636-440: A century later than the conqueror of Lycia. The next logical possibility is that Kheriga's father, Arppakhu, was a descendant of the conqueror. In opposition, Keen reconstructs the dynastic sequence from coin inscriptions as follows. Kheriga had two grandfathers, Kuprlli and Kheriga. The younger Kheriga was the successor of Kuprlli. The latter's son, therefore, Kheziga, who was Kheriga's uncle, must have predeceased Kuprlli. Arppakhu

742-587: A part of the kingdom of Lysimachus , who ruled until he was killed in battle in 281 BC. Control then passed to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centre on Egypt. Ptolemy II Philadelphos (ruled 285–246 BC), who supported the Limyrans of Lycia when they were threatened by the Galatians (a Celtic tribe that had invaded Asia Minor ). The citizens of Limyra in return dedicated a monument to Ptolemy, called

848-460: A relic. mexisttẽn Megasthenes. NOM ẽ-ep[i]tuwe-te it-set.up. PRET - 3sg mexisttẽn ẽ-ep[i]tuwe-te Megasthenes.NOM it-set.up.PRET-3sg Megasthenes set it up… In spite of McCone's alternative analysis, the assumption that verb-subject-object was Lycian's unmarked word order went unchallenged until the 2010s, when Alwin Kloekhorst independently formulated and adopted

954-466: A standard form with the object at the head of the sentence: "This tomb built X"; literally: "This tomb / it / he built / X" (order: O - ipc - V - S ). Laroche suspects the reason for this deviation to be that in this way emphasis fell on the funerary object: "This object, it was built by X". Example: In line 1 mẽti = m-ẽ-ti is the initial particle cluster, where m- = me- is the neutral "steppingstone" to which two suffixes are affixed: -ẽ- = "it", and

1060-560: A tax of 400 silver talents. This satrapy was later broken up and recombined. Keen hypothesizes that since Caria had responsibility for the King's Highway through Lycia, Lycia and Caria were a satrapy. The Achaemenid Persian policy toward Lycia was hands-off. There was not even a satrap stationed in the country. The reason for this tolerance after such a determined initial resistance is that the Iranians were utilizing another method of control:

1166-583: Is Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with Phrygia , Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near Geyre . Founded by the Leleges and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and Aphrodisias , sometime capital of Caria. Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and Plarasa. Tabae

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1272-642: Is a fairly low range peaking at about 2,340 m (7,680 ft). To the west of it the steep gorges of Dalaman Çayi ('the Dalaman River'), the ancient Indus, formed the traditional border between Caria and Lycia. The stream, 229 km (142 mi) long, enters the Mediterranean to the west of modern-day Dalaman . Upstream it is dammed in four places, after an origin in the vicinity of Sarikavak in Denizli Province. The next ridge to

1378-622: Is also located near the Cadyanda ruins, which date back to 3000 BCE, that are also popular among the tourists. The inhabitants are also known for their weavings called "Dastar", which Turkish Patent Institute granted a geographical indication status in 2019. The eponymous inhabitants of Lycia, the Lycians , spoke Lycian, a member of the Luwian branch of the Anatolian languages , a subfamily of

1484-545: Is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization. Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus , but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Ion Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus ( Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia , giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which

1590-567: Is dedicated The Lycian alphabet consists of about 29 signs, many of them reminiscent of the Greek alphabet : Lycian was an Indo-European language, one in the Luwian subgroup of Anatolian languages . A number of principal features help identify Lycian as being in the Luwian group: The Luwian subgroup also includes cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian, Carian , Sidetic , Milyan and Pisidic . The pre-alphabetic forms of Luwian extended back into

1696-456: Is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia. The Persian satraps were re-installed, but (as the coinage of the time attests) they allowed local dynasts the freedom to rule. The last known dynast of Lycia was Perikles . He ruled 380–360 BC over eastern Lycia from Limyra , at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination. Pericles took an active part in the Revolt of

1802-417: Is listed as regnant on two other inscriptions, but he did not succeed Kuprlli. He must therefore have married a daughter of Kuprlli, and have also predeceased the long-lived Kuprlli. The latter then was too old to reign de facto. On the contemporaneous deaths of both him and his son-in-law, Kheriga, named after his paternal grandfather, acquired the throne. Kuprlli was the first king recorded for certain (there

1908-648: Is the Calbis River ( Dalyan River). On the other side is Caunus (near Dalyan), with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between. Then follow some cities that some assign to Lycia and some to Caria: Calynda on the Indus River, Crya and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of Makri ), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus. At

2014-522: The Battle of Salamis , but he may be commemorated by the Harpy Tomb . According to this theory, Cybernis was the KUB of the first coin legends, dated to the window, 520–500. The date would have been more towards 500. There is a gap, however, between him and Kuprlli, who should have had a father named the same as his son, Kheziga. The name Kubernis does not appear again. Keen suggests that Darius I created

2120-614: The Dorian colony of Cnidus . At the base of the peninsula ( Datça Peninsula ) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city"). South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of Symi ), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius, Thymnias and Schoenus,

2226-689: The Hittite Empire . Lycia was populated by speakers of Luwic languages . Written records began to be inscribed in stone in the Lycian language after Lycia's involuntary incorporation into the Achaemenid Empire in the Iron Age . At that time (546 BC) the Luwian speakers were displaced as Lycia received an influx of Persian speakers. The many cities in Lycia were wealthy as shown by their elaborate architecture starting at least from

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2332-517: The Indo-European family. Lycian has been attested only between about 500 BC and no later than 300 BC, in a unique alphabet devised for the purpose from the Greek alphabet of Rhodes. However, the Luwian languages originated in Anatolia during the 2nd millennium BC. The country was known by the name of Lukka then, and was sometimes under Hittite rule. At about 535 BC, before

2438-579: The Late Bronze Age and preceded the fall of the Hittite Empire . These vanished at about the time of the Neo-Hittite states in southern Anatolia (and Syria ); thus, the Iron Age members of the subgroup are localized daughter languages of Luwian. Of the Luwic languages, only the Luwian parent language is attested prior to 1000 BC, so it is unknown when the classical-era dialects diverged. Whether

2544-640: The Late Bronze Age , Lycia was part of the Lukka lands known from Hittite and ancient Egyptian records. The toponyms Lukka and Lycia are believed to be cognate, as are the names of numerous Lukkan and Lycian settlements. The Lukka lands were never a unified kingdom, instead having a decentralized political structure. Archaeological remains of the Lukka people are sparse. The Lukka people were famously fractious, with Hittite and Egyptian records describing them as raiders, rebels, and pirates. Lukka people fought against

2650-705: The Lukka people always resided in southern Anatolia or whether they always spoke Luwian are different topics. From the inscriptions, scholars have identified at least two languages that were termed Lycian . One is considered standard Lycian, also termed Lycian A; the other, which is attested on side D of the Xanthos stele, is Milyan or Lycian B, separated by its grammatical particularities. Nouns and adjectives distinguish singular and plural forms. A dual has not been found in Lycian. There are two genders : animate (or 'common') and inanimate (or 'neuter'). Instead of

2756-536: The Lycian Way , follows part of the coast of the region. The establishment of the path was a private initiative by a British/Turkish woman called Kate Clow. It is intended to support sustainable tourism in smaller mountain villages which are in the process of depopulation. Since it is mainly walked in March – June and Sept–Nov, it also has lengthened the tourism season. The Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry promotes

2862-524: The Mediterranean Sea , bounded on the west by the Gulf of Fethiye , and on the east by the Gulf of Antalya . Lycia comprised what is now the westernmost portion of Antalya Province, the easternmost portion of Muğla Province , and the southernmost portion of Burdur Province. In ancient times the surrounding districts were, from west to east, Caria , Pisidia , and Pamphylia , all equally as ancient, and each speaking its own Anatolian language . The name of

2968-604: The Peloponnesian wars (431–404 BC), the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League , with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the League. This failed when Lycia's leader Gergis/ Kheriga of Xanthos defeated Athenian General Melesander. The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia

3074-632: The Persians , who incorporated them and their lands into the new Persian Empire . Cyrus the Great , founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, resolved to complete the conquest of Anatolia as a prelude to operations further west, to be carried out by his successors. He assigned the task to Harpagus , a Median general, who proceeded to subdue the various states of Anatolia, one by one, some by convincing them to submit, others through military action. Arriving at

3180-600: The Ptolemaion circa 270 BC. By 240 BC Lycia was firmly part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom , centred on Egypt, and remained in their control through 200 BC. Lycian language Lycia covered the region lying between the modern cities of Antalya and Fethiye in southern Turkey , especially the mountainous headland between Fethiye Bay and the Gulf of Antalya. The Lukka , as they were referred to in ancient Egyptian sources, which mention them among

3286-598: The Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region. The territory administratively belonged to the province of Asia . During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia. Christianity was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by St. Paul , and

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3392-675: The Sea Peoples , probably also inhabited the region called Lycaonia , located along the next headland to the east, also mountainous, between the modern cities of Antalya and Mersin . From the late eighteenth century Western European travellers began to visit Asia Minor to deepen their acquaintance with the worlds of Homer and the New Testament . In southwest Asia Minor (Lycia) they discovered inscriptions in an unknown script. The first four texts were published in 1820, and within months French Orientalist Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin used

3498-820: The Sultanate of Rum in the early 13th century, which itself collapsed in 1308. It was then absorbed by the Beylik of Teke and came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in 1423. Lycia was inherited by the Turkish Republic after the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire . The borders of Lycia varied over time, but at its centre was the Teke peninsula of southwestern Turkey, which juts southward into

3604-588: The Xanthos trilingual inscription . The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus was the location of the famed Mausoleum dedicated to Mausolus , a satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife, Artemisia II of Caria . The monument became one of the Seven Wonders of

3710-451: The genitive singular case normally a so-called possessive (or "genitival adjective") is used, as is common practice in the Luwic languages : a suffix -(e)h- is added to the root of a substantive, and thus an adjective is formed that is declined in turn. Nouns can be divided in five declension groups: a -stems, e -stems, i -stems, consonant stems, and mixed stems; the differences between

3816-416: The relative pronoun -ti , "who, he who". Kim McCone proposed in the 1970s that Lycian's unmarked word order was instead subject-verb-object . The apparent VSO and OVS orders come from various frontings and dislocations of a basic SVO structure. Lycian's SVO is itself a shift from the typical Anatolian subject-object-verb order, of which Lycian preverbal object pronouns like ẽ "him/her/it" would be

3922-525: The 4th century, after Lycia had come under the control of Alexander the Great and his fellow Macedonians. There is no agreement yet on which inscription in the Lycian language is the very last, but nothing dated after the year 300 BC has yet been found. Subsequently, the Lycians were vassalized by the Roman Republic , which allowed the Lycians home rule under their own language, which at that point

4028-636: The 5th century BC and extending to the Roman period. Lycia fought for the Persians in the Persian Wars , but on the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by the Greeks, it became intermittently a free agent. After a brief membership in the Athenian Empire , it seceded and became independent (its treaty with Athens had omitted the usual non-secession clause), was under the Persians again, revolted again,

4134-610: The Ancient World , and from which the Romans named any grand tomb a mausoleum. Caria was conquered by Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land Ada of Caria who had been dethroned by the Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir. As part of

4240-635: The Carians called Andanus . After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), 56 miles (90 km) from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown. On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus ( Gökova Körfezi ). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns." Halicarnassus ,

4346-541: The Great in 188 BC, the Roman Republic gave Lycia to Rhodes for 20 years, taking it back in 168 BC. In these latter stages of the Roman Republic, Lycia came to enjoy freedom as a Roman protectorate . The Romans validated home rule officially under the Lycian League in 168 BC. This native government was an early federation with republican principles; these later came to the attention of

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4452-541: The Greek epigram inscribed on the Xanthian Obelisk , which says "this monument has brought glory to the family (genos) of ka[]ika," which has a letter missing. It is probably not *karikas, for Kherika, as the latter is translated in the Letoon trilingual as Gergis. A more likely possibility is *kasikas for Kheziga, the same as Kheriga's uncle, the successor to Kuprlli, who predeceased him. Herodotus mentioned that

4558-697: The Hittites as part of the Assuwa confederation , later fought for the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh , and are listed among the groups known to modern scholars as the Sea People . Herodotus writes more credibly of contemporaneous events, especially where they concerned his native land. Asia Minor had been partly conquered by Iranian peoples , first the Scythians , later the Medes . The latter were defeated by

4664-417: The Lycian League) and Phaselis . Cities such as Telmessos and Krya were sometimes listed by Classical authors as Carian and sometimes as Lycian. Although the 2nd-century BC dialogue Erōtes found the cities of Lycia "interesting more for their history than for their monuments, since they have retained none of their former splendor," many relics of the Lycians remain visible today. These relics include

4770-452: The Lycian coast as part of the Turkish Riviera or the Turquoise Coast, but the most important part of this is further west near Bodrum. This coast features rocky or sandy beaches at the bases of cliffs and settlements in protected coves that cater to the yachting industry. Yeşilüzümlü village is a popular touristic attraction among the tourists beyond the Lycian Way due to its historic architecture and narrow cobblestone streets. The village

4876-486: The Lycian inscription, except for one line identifying a person of illegible name, to whom the monument was erected, termed the son of Arppakhu in Lycian, equivalent to Greek Harpagos . Concluding that this person was the conqueror of Lycia in 546, Fellows conjectured that Harpagos had been made permanent satrap of Lycia for his services; moreover, the position was hereditary, creating a Harpagid Dynasty. This theory prevailed nearly without question for several generations. To

4982-533: The Lycian vocabulary. A next leap forward could be made with the discovery in 1973 of the Letoon trilingual in Lycian, Greek and Aramaic. Though much remains unclear, comprehensive dictionaries of Lycian have been composed since by Craig Melchert and Günter Neumann . Lycian is known from these sources, some of them fairly extensive: Text in Lycian: Ebẽñnẽ prñnawu mẽn e prñnawatẽ hanadaza hrppi ladi ehbi setideime ebẽñnẽ eχbeχẽnẽ tẽti. Translate: Hanadaza built this building for his wife and sons and this stone

5088-539: The SVO hypothesis. This led to other linguists like Heiner Eichner and H. Craig Melchert to adopt the SVO hypothesis after him. The principal unmarked example cited by SVO supporters comes from the following sentence: pajawa Pajawa. NOM m[a]n[ax]ine: Manaxine prñnawa-te: build. PRET - 3sg prñnaw-ã building- ACC ebẽ-ñnẽ: this- ACC pajawa m[a]n[ax]ine: prñnawa-te: prñnaw-ã ebẽ-ñnẽ: Pajawa.NOM Manaxine build.PRET-3sg building-ACC this-ACC Pajawa Manaxine built this building. (Note

5194-418: The Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated. After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BC. Control was taken by Mausolus , the satrap of nearby Caria , who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus . Lycia was also ruled directly by the Carian dynast Pixodarus , son of Hecatomnus , as shown in the Xanthos trilingual inscription . Lycia

5300-405: The Spartan Pausanias in the Eastern Mediterranean circa 478 BC. However, the Lycian were still on the Persian side during the expeditions of Kimon circa 470 BC, who finally persuaded the Lycian to join the Athenian alliance, the Delian League : Diodorus relates that Kimon "persuaded those of Lycia and took them into his allegiance". As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought

5406-431: The Teke Peninsula comes from the former name of Antalya Province, which was Teke Province , named from the Turkish tribe that settled in the region. Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest, roughly, forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains . Furthest west of the four are Boncuk Dağlari, or 'the Boncuk Mountains', extending from about Altinyayla, Burdur , southwest to about Oren north of Fethiye . This

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5512-447: The Teke Peninsula. It is most likely the ancient Masicytus range. Between Beydağlari and Akdağlari is an upland plateau, Elmali, where ancient Milyas was located. The elevation of the town of Elmali, which means 'Apple Town,' from the density of fruit-bearing groves in the region, is 1,100 m (3,600 ft), which is the highest part of the valley below it. Fellows considered the valley to be central Lycia. The Akçay, or 'White River',

5618-422: The Turmirla or Turmirliya, Lycian Trm̃mili, "Lycians." They lived during the reign of Darius I (522–486), the tablets dating from 509. For closer attention to their conquered, the Persian government preferred to establish a client state , setting up a monarchy under their control. The term " dynast " has come into use among English-speaking scholars, but that is not a native term. The Lycian inscriptions indicate

5724-401: The absence of the initial particle cluster.) Caria Caria ( / ˈ k ɛər i ə / ; from Greek : Καρία, Karia ; Turkish : Karya ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid- Ionia ( Mycale ) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia . The Carians were described by Herodotus as being Anatolian mainlanders and they called themselves Caria because of

5830-477: The ancient Aedesa, brought water from the slopes to the plain, where it pooled in two lakes below the town, Karagöl and Avlangöl. Currently the two lakes are dry, the waters being captured on an ongoing basis by irrigation systems for the trees. The Aedesa once drained the plain through a chasm to the east, but now flows entirely through pipelines covering the same route, but emptying into the water supplies of Arycanda and Arif. An effort has been made to restore some of

5936-434: The base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus , and near Milas where the current village Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris ( Stratonicea ). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia . Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into Mylasa . Connected to

6042-414: The battles, but if they were bound down by too strong a compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack. Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias ( Greek : Φαινίας ), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a Thracian , but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe ( Eυτέρπη ), and Neanthes ( Νεάνθης ) adds that she

6148-422: The broad valley under superhighway D400 near downtown Kumluca across a barrier beach into the Mediterranean. This configuration is entirely modern. Upstream the river is impounded behind Alakir Dam to form an urban-size reservoir. Below the reservoir a braided stream alternates with a single, small channel flowing through irrigated land. The wide bed gives an indication of the former size of the river. Upstream from

6254-496: The cedar forests cleared in antiquity. The easternmost ridge extends along the east coast of the Teke Peninsula, and is called, generally, Tahtali Dağlari, "The Tahtali Mountains." The high point within them is Tahtali Dağ, elevation 2,366 m (7,762 ft), dubbed "Mount Olympus" in antiquity by the Greeks, remembering Mount Olympus in Greece. These mountains create a rugged coastline called by Fellows eastern Lycia. Much of it has been reserved as Olimpos Beydağlari Parki. Within

6360-406: The cities of Caria were allies of Xerxes I and they fought at the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis , where the Queen of Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent of 70 Carian ships. Themistocles , before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at

6466-430: The coastal strip in the protecting coves or on the slopes and hills of the mountain ranges. They are often difficult to access, which in ancient times was a defensive feature. The rugged coastline favored well-defended ports from which, in troubled times, Lycian pirate fleets sallied forth. The principal cities of ancient Lycia were Xanthos , Patara , Myra , Pinara , Tlos and Olympos (each entitled to three votes in

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6572-418: The distinctive rock-cut tombs in the sides of cliffs. The British Museum in London contains one of the best collections of Lycian artifacts. Letoon , an important center in Hellenic times of worship for the goddess Leto and her twin children, Apollo and Artemis , and nearby Xanthos, ancient capital of Lycia, constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Turkey's first waymarked long-distance footpath,

6678-434: The east is Akdağlari, 'the White Mountains', about 150 km (93 mi) long, with a high point at Uyluktepe, "Uyluk Peak", of 3,024 m (9,921 ft). This massif may have been ancient Mount Cragus. Along its western side flows Eşen Çayi, "the Esen River", anciently the Xanthos , Lycian Arñna, originating in the Boncuk Mountains, flowing south, and transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara . The Xanthos Valley

6784-441: The event presented by Herodotus. It might have been another fire. The Caunians, says Herodotus, followed a similar example immediately after. If there was an attempt by any of the states of Lycia to join forces, as happened in Greece 50 years later, there is no record of it, suggesting that no central government existed. Each country awaited its own fate alone. Herodotus also says or implies that 80 Xanthian families were away at

6890-516: The final settlement of the border with Greece at the beginning of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The Turks had won wars against both Greece and Armenia in the preceding few years, settling the issue of whether the coast of Anatolia was going to be Greek or Turkish. The intent of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) was to define borders that would not leave substantial populations of one country in another. Some population transfers were enforced. Former Greek villages still stand as ghost towns in Lycia. During

6996-524: The first appearance of attested Lycian, the Achaemenid Empire overran Lycia. Despite its resistance, because of which the population of Xanthos was decimated, Lycia became part of the Persian Empire. The first coins with Lycian letters on them appeared not long before 500 BC. Lycia prospered under a monarchy set up by the Persians. Subsequently, the Lycians were verbose in stone, carving memorial, historical and governmental inscriptions. Not all of these can yet be entirely understood, due to remaining ignorance of

7102-410: The framers of the United States Constitution , influencing their thoughts. Despite home rule, Lycia was not a sovereign state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians . In 43 AD the Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, and Lycia was incorporated into the Roman province of Lycia et Pamphylia . In 395, the province was assigned to the Eastern Roman Empire . It lost the region to

7208-454: The groups are very minor. The declension of nouns goes as follows: The paradigm for the demonstrative pronoun ebe , "this" is: The demonstrative ebe , 'this', is also used as a personal pronoun: 'this one', therefore 'he, she, it'. Here is a paradigm of all attested personal pronouns: Other pronouns are: The following numerals are attested: Just as in other Anatolian languages (Luwian, Lydian) verbs in Lycian were conjugated in

7314-459: The images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the late 5th century BC. No ruler had dared to illustrate his own portrait on coinage until that time. The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical undifferentiated manner, showing a bust or the full body, but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from circa 500 BC. From

7420-462: The inscriptions of the Xanthian Obelisk were added those of the Letoon trilingual , which gave a sequel, as it were, to the names on the obelisk. Studies of coin legends, initiated by Fellows, went on. Currently, most (but not all) of the Harpagid Theory has been rejected. The Achaemenids utilized no permanent satrapies; the political circumstances changed too often. The conqueror of new lands was seldom made their satrap; he went on to other conquests. It

7526-408: The islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the population exchange . In July 2021, archaeologists led by Abuzer Kızıl have announced the discovery of two 2,500-year-old marble statues and an inscription during excavations at the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in Euromus . According to Abuzer Kızıl, one of the statues was naked while other was wearing armor made of leather and a short skirt. Both of

7632-528: The kingship on reorganizing the satrapies in 525, and that on the intestate death of Kubernis in battle, the Persians chose another relative named Kheziga, who was the father of Kuprlli. The Lycian dynasty may therefore be summarized as follows: Following the Achaemenid defeat in the Greco-Persian War (479 BC), the Lycians may have temporarily joined the Greek side during the counter-attacks of

7738-523: The language. The term "dynastic period" is used. If the government was any sort of federal democracy, there is no evidence of it, as the term "dynastic" suggests. Lycia hosted a small enclave of Dorian Greeks for some centuries and Rhodes was mainly inhabited by Dorians at the time. After the defeat of the Persians by the Greeks, Lycia became open to further Greek settlement. During this period, inscriptions in Lycian diminished, while those in Greek multiplied. Complete assimilation to Greek occurred sometime in

7844-698: The last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island: Elaeus or Elaeussa near Loryma . On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi . South of there is the Rhodian Peraea , a section of the coast under Rhodes . It includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus, Amos , Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa ( Marmaris ). Beyond Cressa

7950-464: The latter by a sacred way are Labraunda and Sinuri . Around Stratonicea is also Lagina as well as Panamara , Tendeba and Astragon . Further inland towards Aydın is Alabanda , noted for its marble and its scorpions , Orthosia , Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper Maeander and Alinda . To the east is the religious centre Hyllarima . At the confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus

8056-522: The leader of the Lycian fleet under Xerxes in the Second Persian War of 480 BC was Kuberniskos Sika , previously interpreted as "Cyberniscus, the son of Sicas," two non-Lycian names. A slight regrouping of the letters obtains kubernis kosika , "Cybernis, son of Cosicas," where Cosicas is for Kheziga. Cybernis went to the bottom of the Straits of Salamis with the entire Lycian fleet in

8162-430: The monarch was titled xñtawati, more phonetically khñtawati. The holders of this title can be traced in coin legends, having been given the right to coin. Lycia had a single monarch, who ruled the entire country from a palace at Xanthos. The monarchy was hereditary, hence the term "dynast." It was utilized by Persia as a means of transmitting Persian policy. It must have been they who put down local resistance and transported

8268-534: The name of their king. He reports the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians . The Carians spoke Carian , a native Anatolian language closely related to Luwian . Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges , which could be an earlier name for Carians. Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns

8374-467: The only early churches seem to be those of Laodicea and Colossae ( Chonae ) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria. In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military theme system

8480-478: The other Anatolian languages. Sentences in plain text mostly have the structure The verb immediately follows an "initial particle cluster", consisting of a more or less meaningless particle " se- " or " me- " (literally, 'and') followed by a series of up to three suffixes, often called emphatics. The function of some of these suffixes is mysterious, but others have been identified as pronomina like "he", "it", or "them". The subject, direct object, or indirect object of

8586-455: The park on the slopes of Mount Olympus is a U-shaped outcrop, Yanartaş , above Cirali , from which methane gas, naturally perpetually escaping from below through the rocks, feeds eternal flames. This is the location of ancient Mount Chimaera . Through the cul-de-sac between Baydağlari and Tahtalidağlari, the Alakir Çay ('Alakir River'), the ancient Limyra, flows to the south trickling from

8692-689: The placement of aristocratic Persian families in a region to exercise putative home rule. There is some evidence that the Lycian population was not as docile as the Persian hand-off policy would suggest. A section of the Persepolis Administrative Archives called the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, regarding the redistribution of goods and services in the Persepolis palace economy , mentions some redistributed prisoners of war, among whom were

8798-405: The present-future and preterite tenses and in the imperative with three persons singular and plural. Some endings have many variants, due to nasalization ( -a- → -añ-, -ã-; -e- → -eñ-, -ẽ- ), lenition ( -t- → -d- ), gemination ( -t- → -tt-; -d- → -dd- ), and vowel harmonization ( -a- → -e- : prñn a wãtẽ → prñn e wãtẽ ). About a dozen conjugations can be distinguished, on the basis of (1)

8904-458: The prisoners to Persepolis, or ordered them transported. Some members of the dynasty were Iranian, but mainly it was native Lycian. If the survivors of 546 were in fact herdsmen (speculation), then all the Xanthian nobility had perished, and the Persians must have designated some other Lycian noble, whom they could trust. The first dynast is believed to be the person mentioned in the last line of

9010-594: The region as a whole, a large Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively Carian supplemented with a small Jewish community in Milas) as low as one per cent. One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas to the then much smaller Muğla , which

9116-550: The remainder of Lycia; presumably, that is true because they submitted without further incident. Lycia was well populated and flourished as a Persian satrapy; moreover, they spoke mainly Lycian. The Harpagid Theory was initiated by Charles Fellows , discoverer of the Xanthian Obelisk , and person responsible for the transportation of the Xanthian Marbles from Lycia to the British Museum . Fellows could not read

9222-492: The reservoir the stream lies in an unaltered gorge, flowing from the slopes of Baydağlari. The ancient route to Antalya goes up the valley and over the cul-de-sac, as the coast itself is impassible except by boat. The valley was the seat of ancient Solymus, home of the Solymi. There are at least 381 ancient settlements in the broader region of Lycia-Pamphylia, with the vast majority of these in Lycia. These are situated either along

9328-400: The sentence may thus proleptically be referred to in the initial particle cluster. As an example, the sentence "X built a house" might in Lycian be structured: "and-he-it / he-built / X / a-house". Other constituents of a sentence, like an indirect object, predicate, or complimentary adjuncts, can be placed anywhere after the verb. Contrary to this pattern, funeral inscriptions as a rule have

9434-471: The southern coast of Anatolia in 546 BC, the army of Harpagus encountered no problem with the Carians and their immediate Greek neighbors and alien populations, who submitted peacefully. In the Xanthos Valley an army of Xanthian Greeks sallied out to meet them, fighting determinedly, although vastly outnumbered. Driven into the citadel, they collected all their property, dependents and slaves into

9540-472: The texts cleared up some grammatical aspects of the language. The only substantial text with a Greek counterpart, the Xanthos stele , was hardly helpful because the Lycian text was quite heavily damaged, and worse, its Greek text does not anywhere come near to a close parallel. It was only after the decipherment of Hittite , by Bedřich Hrozný in 1917, that a language became known that was closely related to Lycian and could help etymological interpretations of

9646-426: The time of Alexander the Great , portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals fought amongst themselves over the succession. Lycia fell into the hands of the general Antigonus by 304 BC. In 301 BC Antigonus was killed by an alliance of the other successors of Alexander, and Lycia became

9752-543: The time, perhaps with the herd animals in alpine summer pastures (pure speculation), but helped repopulate the place. However, he reports, the Xanthians of his time were mainly descended from non-Xanthians. Looking for any nuance that might shed light on the repopulation of Xanthos, Keen interprets Herodotus' "those Lycians who now say that they are Xanthians" to mean that Xanthos was repopulated by other Lycians (and not by Iranians or other foreigners). Herodotus said nothing of

9858-465: The various conjugations are minor. Verbs are conjugated as follows; Mediopassive (MP) forms are in brown : A suffix -s- (cognate with Greek, Latin -/sk/-), appended to the stem and attested with half a dozen verbs, is thought to make a verb iterative : Emmanuel Laroche , who analysed the Lycian text of the Letoon trilingual, concluded that word order in Lycian is slightly more free than in

9964-399: The verbal root ending ( a -stems, consonant stems, -ije -stems, etc.), and (2) the endings of the third person singular being either unlenited (present -ti ; preterite -te ; imperative -tu ) or lenited ( -di ; -de ; -du ). For example, prñnawa- (to build) is an unlenited a -stem ( prñnawati , he builds), a(i)- (to make) is a lenited a(i) -stem ( adi , he makes). Differences between

10070-791: Was Greek. Lycia continued to exist as a vassal state under the Roman Empire until its final division after the death of Theodosius I at which point it became a part of the Byzantine Empire under Arcadius . After the fall of the Byzantines in the 15th century, Lycia fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire ; Turkish colonization of the area soon followed. Turkish and Greek settlements existed side-by-side, each speaking their own language. All Greek-speaking enclaves in Anatolia were exchanged for Turkish speakers in Greece during

10176-565: Was also ruled by men such as Mithrapata (late 4th century BC), whose name was Persian. Persia held Lycia until it was conquered by Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon during 334–333 BC. During the Alexander the Great period, Nearchus was appointed viceroy of Lycia and of the land adjacent to it as far as mount Taurus. Although many of the first coins in Antiquity illustrated

10282-614: Was an earlier possible) in the coin legends. He reigned approximately 480–440. Harpagos was not related by blood. The conqueror, therefore, was not the founder of the line, which was not Harpagid. An Iranian family, however, producing some other Harpagids, did live in Lycia and was of sufficient rank to marry the king's daughter. As to whether the Iranian family were related to any satrap, probably not. Herodotus said that Satrapy 1 (the satrapies were numbered) consisted of Ionia, Magnesia, Aeolia, Caria, Lycia, Milya, and Pamphylia, who together paid

10388-514: Was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of Cibyra . Caria is often identified with the Bronze Age region of Karkiya (or Karkisa ) known from Hittite texts, though this identification is uncertain. Caria

10494-536: Was confirmed when the Athenians discovered the graves of the dead from Delos . Half of it were identified as Carians based on the characteristics of the weapons they were buried with. The expansionism of Lydia under Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid advance. Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as

10600-468: Was conquered by Mausolus of Caria , returned to the Persians, and finally fell under Macedonian hegemony upon the defeat of the Persians by Alexander the Great . Due to the influx of Greek speakers and the sparsity of the remaining Lycian speakers, Lycia was rapidly Hellenized under the Macedonians, and the Lycian language disappeared from inscriptions and coinage. On defeating Antiochus III

10706-533: Was from Halicarnassus in Caria.". After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria became members of the Athenian-led Delian League , but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast Mausolus took control of neighbouring Lycia , a territory which was still held by Pixodarus as shown by

10812-561: Was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the Turks under the Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century. There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions. The first Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for

10918-454: Was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from

11024-575: Was not the Persian custom to grant hereditary satrapies; satrap was only a step in the cursus honorum . And finally, a destitute mountain country would have been a poor reward for Cyrus' best general. The main evidence against the Harpagid Theory (as Keen calls it) is the reconstruction of the name of the Xanthian Obelisk's deceased as Lycian Kheriga, Greek Gergis ( Nereid Monument ), a king reigning approximately 440–410 BC, over

11130-517: Was settled by Greek immigrants in the Early Iron Age . Their presence is attested by protogeometric pottery which appears in the area around 1100 BC, along with other markers of Greek material culture. The coast of Caria was part of the Doric hexapolis ("six-cities"). An account also cited that Aristotle claimed Caria, as a naval empire, occupied Epidaurus and Hermione and that this

11236-520: Was the country called Tŗmmis in dynastic Lycia, from which the people were the Termilae or Tremilae, or Kragos in the coin inscriptions of Greek Lycia: Kr or Ksan Kr. The name of western Lycia was given by Charles Fellows to it and points of Lycia west of it. The next ridge to the east, Beydağlari, 'the Bey Mountains', peaks at Kizlarsevrisi, 3,086 m (10,125 ft), the highest point of

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