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63-637: The term Puuc is also used to designate the architectural style of ancient Maya sites located within the Puuc hills, hence, the term Puuc architecture . This architectural style began at the end of the Late Classic period but experienced its greatest extent during the Terminal Classic period. In the florescence of Puuc architecture (such as at the ancient Maya site of Uxmal ) buildings were decorated with carefully cut veneer stones set into

126-574: A ballcourt which served as a crossing point between the two worlds. Some Mesoamericanists argue that in religious symbolism the Mesoamerican monumental architecture pyramids were mountains, stelae were trees, and wells, ballcourts and cenotes were caves that provided access to the underworld. Mesoamerican architecture is often designed to align to specific celestial events. Some pyramids, temples, and other structures were designed to achieve special lighting effects on particular days important in

189-459: A concrete core. The lower portion of the façades are blank with a flat surface of rectangular blocks punctuated by doorways, while the upper façade is richly decorated with intricate stone mosaics , often alternating repeated geometric elements with more elaborate figurative sculpture. Long-nosed masks (commonly believed to be of the Maya rain god Chaac ) are found on many Puuc buildings. Beyond

252-460: A 100 square kilometers area. Puuc Biocultural State Reserve , also known as Kaxil Kiuic reserve ( Spanish Reserva Estatal Biocultural del Puuc ) was designated in 2011. It covers an area of 1358.93 km. The reserve was created to protect the region's archeological sites as well as its biodiverse flora and fauna. The reserve is home to 247 bird, 63 mammal, 52 reptile, and 14 amphibian species. Five species of large felines, including jaguars , live in

315-653: A Maya site in La Muneca, the facade of Temple A at Nukum, two low domes at Tajin in Veracruz, a sweat bath at Chichen Itza, and an arch at Oztuma. In 2010, a robot discovered a long arch-roofed passageway underneath the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl , which stands in the ancient city of Teotihuacan north of Mexico City , dated to around 200 AD. A number of important archeological sites representing Mesoamerican architecture have been categorized as " World Heritage Sites " by

378-530: A cosmology of seven directions. For example, among the Hopi of the Southwestern United States , the four named cardinal directions are not North, South, East and West but are the four directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices. Each direction may be associated with a color, which can vary widely between nations, but which is usually one of

441-594: A residence, as well as the decoration required for their inhabitants stature. Archaeologists seem to agree that many palaces are home to various tombs. At Copán , beneath over four-hundred years of later remodeling, a tomb for one of the ancient rulers has been discovered and the North Acropolis at Tikal appears to have been the site of numerous burials during the Terminal Pre-classic and Early Classic periods. The most surprising aspect of

504-471: A special word: tenggara . Sanskrit and other Indian languages that borrow from it use the names of the gods associated with each direction : east (Indra), southeast (Agni), south (Yama/Dharma), southwest (Nirrti), west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of

567-577: A terrestrial map because one is looking up instead of down. Similarly, when describing the location of one astronomical object relative to another, "north" means closer to the North celestial pole, "east" means at a higher right ascension , "south" means closer to the South celestial pole, and "west" means at a lower right ascension. If one is looking at two stars that are below the North Star, for example,

630-585: A thick layer of stucco . This style was common in the northern Maya lowlands from the Preclassic until the early parts of the Early Classic . Pyramids in Mesoamerican were platformed pyramids and many used a style called talud-tablero , which first became common in Teotihuacan. This style consists of a platform structure, or the "tablero," on top of a sloped "talud". Many different variants on

693-451: A total of 32 named points evenly spaced around the compass: north (N), north by east (NbE), north-northeast (NNE), northeast by north (NEbN), northeast (NE), northeast by east (NEbE), east-northeast (ENE), east by north (EbN), east (E), etc. Cardinal directions or cardinal points may sometimes be extended to include vertical position ( elevation , altitude , depth ): north and south , east and west , up and down; or mathematically

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756-545: A type of propaganda. The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest structure created in the city of Teotihuacan and one of the largest structures in the entire Western Hemisphere. It stands at about 216 feet and is roughly 720 by 760 ft (220 by 230 m) at its base. The pyramid is located on the east side of the avenue of the dead which runs almost directly down the center of the city of Teotihuacan. After archaeologists discovered animal remains, masks, figurines, specifically one of

819-481: Is because of a general wish to align the pyramids to face the sunset on August 13, which was the beginning date of the Maya Long Count calendar. However, recent research has shown that the earliest orientations marking sunsets on August 13 (and April 30) occur outside of the Maya area. Their purpose must have been to record the dates separated by a period of 260 days (from August 13 to April 30), equivalent to

882-509: Is related to I Ching , the Wu Xing and the five naked-eye planets . In traditional Chinese astrology , the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the directions. Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a mythological creature of that color . Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of

945-588: Is the interesting situation that native Japanese words ( yamato kotoba , kun readings of kanji) are used for the cardinal directions (such as minami for 南, south), but borrowed Chinese words (on readings of kanji) are used for intercardinal directions (such as tō-nan for 東南, southeast, lit. "east-south"). In the Malay language , adding laut (sea) to either east ( timur ) or west ( barat ) results in northeast or northwest, respectively, whereas adding daya to west (giving barat daya ) results in southwest. Southeast has

1008-487: Is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names ( wilayahs , states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as Algarve , Portugal and Axarquía , Spain). In Mesoamerica and North America , a number of traditional indigenous cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center. Some may also include "above" and "below" as directions, and therefore focus on

1071-542: Is well documented at the site of Oxkintok . To the south, the style can be found in Edzná ; and to the east at Chichen Itza (outside of the Puuc Hills region). As stated by the Maya explorer Teobert Maler, who explored this zone intensively, the area around the site of Dolores is full of ruins. The recently completed Chunhuaymil project compiled data of the remaining Puuc architecture of 19 archaeological sites located in

1134-519: The Terminal Classic in the northern Maya lowlands, Puuc architecture consists of veneer facing stones applied to a concrete core. Two façades were typically built, partitioned by a ridge of stone. The blank lower façade is formed by flat cut stones and punctuated by doorways. The upper partition is richly decorated with repeating geometric patterns and iconographic elements, especially the distinctive curved-nosed Chaac masks. Carved columnettes are also common. Mesoamerican cultures never invented

1197-504: The UNESCO . El Salvador Honduras Guatemala Mexico Cardinal directions The four cardinal directions , or cardinal points , are the four main compass directions: north , south , east , and west , commonly denoted by their initials N, S, E, and W respectively. Relative to north, the directions east, south, and west are at 90 degree intervals in the clockwise direction. The ordinal directions (also called

1260-611: The angle of rotation (in degrees ) in the unit circle over the horizontal plane . It is a necessary step for navigational calculations (derived from trigonometry ) and for use with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers . The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass: The intercardinal (intermediate, or, historically, ordinal ) directions are the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between each pair of cardinal directions. These eight directional names have been further compounded known as tertiary intercardinal directions, resulting in

1323-528: The intercardinal directions ) are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). The intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called a secondary intercardinal direction. These eight shortest points in the compass rose shown to the right are: Points between the cardinal directions form the points of the compass . Arbitrary horizontal directions may be indicated by their azimuth angle value. The directional names are routinely associated with azimuths ,

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1386-403: The keystone , and so were unable to build true arches , but instead, all of their architecture made use of the "false" or Corbelled arch . These arches are built without centering and can be built without support, by corbelling regularly the horizontal courses of the wall masonry. This type of arch supports much less weight than a true arch. However, recent work by engineer James O'Kon suggests

1449-643: The Aztec god Huehueteotl , and shards of clay pots in the pyramid, it was agreed upon that the pyramid was likely a ritual temple at one point. The Temple of the Feathered Serpent was constructed after the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon had been completed. The temple marks one of the first uses of the architecture style of talud-tablero . On the surfaces, the temple had murals illustrated on them just like so many temples that were built at

1512-548: The Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions. In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, classical Greek culture characterized these winds as Anemoi . In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of

1575-559: The Mesoamerican "arch" is technically not a corbelled arch at all but a trapezium truss system. Moreover, unlike a corbelled arch, it does not rely on overlapping layers of blocks but cast-in-place concrete often supported by timber thrust beams. Computer analysis reveals this to be structurally superior to a curved arch Scholars such as David Eccott and Gordon Ekholm argue that true arches were known in pre-Columbian times in Mesoamerica; they point to various examples of true arches at

1638-468: The Mesoamerican cosmovision. A famous example is the " El Castillo " pyramid at Chichen Itza , where a light-and-shadow effect can be observed during several weeks around the equinoxes. Contrary to a common opinion, however, there is no evidence that this phenomenon was the result of a purposeful design intended to commemorate the equinoxes. Much Mesoamerican architecture is also aligned to roughly 15° east of north. Vincent H Malmstrom has argued that this

1701-508: The North celestial pole. Similarly, a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points. Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point. This is opposite to the order on

1764-781: The Northeast Coast of the Yucatán peninsula, where the worship of the goddess Ixchel, associated with the Moon, is known to have had an outstanding importance during the Postclassic period. Nearly every known ancient Mesoamerican city had one or more formal public plazas. They are typically large impressive spaces, surrounded by tall pyramids, temples, and other important buildings. Activities that would take place in these plazas would include private rituals, periodic markets, mass spectator ceremonies, participatory public ceremonies, feasts, and other popular celebrations. The size of

1827-593: The additional directions of up and down . Each of the ten directions has its own name in Sanskrit . Some indigenous Australians have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the Warlpiri people have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions and the Guugu Yimithirr people use cardinal directions rather than relative direction even when indicating

1890-432: The alleys in early ball courts were open-ended, later ball courts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an [REDACTED] -shape when viewed from above. The playing alley may be at ground level, or the ball court may be "sunken". Ball courts were no mean feats of engineering. One of the sandstone stones on El Tajin's South Ball court is 11 m long and weighs more than 10 tons . Large and often highly decorated,

1953-433: The basic colors found in nature and natural pigments, such as black, red, white, and yellow, with occasional appearances of blue, green, or other hues. There can be great variety in color symbolism, even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically. Ten Hindu deities , known as the " Dikpālas ", have been recognized in classical Indian scriptures, symbolizing the four cardinal and four intercardinal directions with

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2016-415: The center as a fifth cardinal point . Central Asian , Eastern European and North East Asian cultures frequently have traditions associating colors with four or five cardinal points. Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China , as well as traditional Turkic , Tibetan and Ainu cultures. In Chinese tradition, the five cardinal point system

2079-527: The city to supply its residents. The island was about 12 square kilometers and had a population of approximately 125,000 people, making it the largest Mesoamerican city ever recorded. The main plaza of Tenochtitlan was approximately 115,000 square meters, or 11.5 ha (28 acres). The main temple of Tenochtitlan known as Templo Mayor or the Great Temple was 100 meters by 80 meters at its base, and 60 meters tall. The city ultimately fell in 1521 when it

2142-416: The city's northern half. The southern part represented life, sustenance, and rebirth and often contained structures related to the continuity and daily function of the city-state, such as monuments depicting the noble lineages, or residential quarters, markets, etc. Between the two halves of the north/south axis was the plaza, often containing stelae resembling the world tree the Mesoamerican axis mundi , and

2205-461: The city. All but the earliest ball courts are masonry structures. Over 1300 ball courts have been identified, and although there is a tremendous variation in size, they all have the same general shape: a long narrow alley flanked by two walls with horizontal, sloping, and sometimes vertical faces. The later vertical faces, such as those at Chichen Itza and El Tajin , are often covered with complex iconography and scenes of human sacrifice . Although

2268-679: The compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names. These often corresponded to the directional winds of the Mediterranean Sea (for example, southeast was linked to the Sirocco , a wind from the Sahara). Particular colors are associated in some traditions with the cardinal points. These are typically " natural colors " of human perception rather than optical primary colors . Many cultures, especially in Asia , include

2331-590: The different phases of Mesoamerican history as a result of the intensive cultural exchange between the different cultures of the Mesoamerican culture area through thousands of years. Mesoamerican architecture is mostly noted for its pyramids , which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient Egypt . One interesting and widely researched topic is the relation between cosmovision , religion , geography , and architecture in Mesoamerica. Much seems to suggest that many traits of Mesoamerican architecture were governed by religious and mythological ideas. For example,

2394-605: The fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding "disha" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south). The cardinal directions of the Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Hopi-Tewa are related to the places of sunrise and sunset at the solstices, and correspond approximately to the European intercardinal directions. Use of

2457-510: The great Mesoamerican structures is their lack of many advanced technologies that would seem to be necessary for such constructions. Lacking metal tools, Mesoamerican architecture required one thing in abundance: manpower. Yet, beyond this enormous requirement, the remaining materials seem to have been readily available. They most often utilized limestone , which remained pliable enough to be worked with stone tools while being quarried, and only hardened once when removed from its bed. In addition to

2520-414: The heavens. While recent discoveries point toward the extensive use of pyramids as tombs, the temples themselves seem to rarely, if ever, contain burials. Residing atop the pyramids, some of over two-hundred feet, such as that at El Mirador , the temples were impressive and decorated structures themselves. Commonly topped with a roof comb , or superficial grandiose wall, these temples might have served as

2583-433: The impressive decorative elements of Puuc architecture, the use of a concrete core is also considered an architectural advance beyond the earlier Maya technique of using larger stones (set on top of one another in lime and mud mortar) for structural support. The concrete core-veneer masonry allowed for slightly larger and more stable interior rooms. Many corbelled vaults in the Puuc style remain standing, even when most of

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2646-459: The intercardinal directions have names that are not compounds of the names of the cardinal directions (as, for instance, northeast is compounded from north and east ). In Estonian, those are kirre (northeast), kagu (southeast), edel (southwest), and loe (northwest), in Finnish koillinen (northeast), kaakko (southeast), lounas (southwest), and luode (northwest). In Japanese, there

2709-561: The layout of most Mesoamerican cities seem to be influenced by the cardinal directions and their mythological and symbolic meanings in Mesoamerican culture . Another part of Mesoamerican architecture is its iconography . The monumental architecture of Mesoamerica was decorated with images of religious and cultural significance, and also in many cases with writing in some of the Mesoamerican writing systems . Iconographic decorations and texts on buildings are important contributors to

2772-452: The length of the sacred Mesoamerican calendrical count. In general, the orientations in Mesoamerican architecture tend to mark the dates separated by multiples of 13 and 20 days, i.e. of basic periods of the calendrical system. The distribution of these dates in the year suggests that the orientations allowed the use of observational calendars that facilitated the prediction of agriculturally significant dates. These conclusions are supported by

2835-533: The main plazas in Mesoamerican cities differed greatly, the largest being located in Tenochtitlan with an estimated size of 115,000 square meters. This plaza is an outlier due to the population of the city being so large. The next largest estimated plaza is located in the Gulf Coast in the city of Cempoala (or Zempoala), measuring at 48,088 square meters. Most plazas average at around 3,000 square meters,

2898-422: The name of the corresponding direction. East: Green ( 青 "qīng" corresponds to both green and blue); Spring; Wood South: Red ; Summer; Fire West: White ; Autumn; Metal North: Black ; Winter; Water Center: Yellow ; Earth Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as Ash Shamal (N), Al Gharb (W), Ash Sharq (E) and Al Janoob (S). Additionally, Al Wusta

2961-628: The one that is "east" will actually be further to the left. During the Migration Period , the Germanic names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages , where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis ) with north, australis (or meridionalis ) with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used

3024-429: The overall current knowledge of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican society, history and religion. The following tables show the different phases of Mesoamerican architecture and archeology and correlates them with the cultures, cities, styles and specific buildings that are notable from each period. An important part of the Mesoamerican religious system was replicating their beliefs in concrete tangible forms, in effect making

3087-421: The palaces usually sat close to the center of a city and housed the population's elite. Any exceedingly large royal palace, or one consisting of many chambers on different levels might be referred to as an acropolis. However, often these were one-story and consisted of many small chambers and typically at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed functionality required of

3150-490: The position of an object close to their body. (For more information, see: Cultures without relative directions .) The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements . Many aboriginal languages contain words for the usual four cardinal directions, but some contain words for 5 or even 6 cardinal directions. In some languages , such as Estonian , Finnish and Breton ,

3213-506: The reserve. Mesoamerican architecture Mesoamerican architecture is the set of architectural traditions produced by pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica , traditions which are best known in the form of public, ceremonial and urban monumental buildings and structures. The distinctive features of Mesoamerican architecture encompass a number of different regional and historical styles, which however are significantly interrelated. These styles developed throughout

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3276-590: The results of systematic research accomplished in various Mesoamerican regions, including central Mexico, the Maya Lowlands, Oaxaca, the Gulf Coast lowlands, and western and northern Mesoamerica. While solar orientations prevail, some prominent buildings were aligned to Venus extremes, a notable example being the Governor's Palace at Uxmal. Orientations to lunar standstill positions on the horizon have also been documented; they are particularly common along

3339-424: The same time and by the same people. The tableros featured large serpent heads complete with elaborate headdresses. The feathered serpent refers to the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl . The Mesoamerican ballgame ritual was a symbolic journey between the underworld and the world of the living, and many ball courts are found in the mid-part of the city functioning as a connection between the northern and southern halves of

3402-404: The six directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates . Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines . Alternatively, elevation angle may be combined with cardinal direction (or, more generally, arbitrary azimuth angle) to form a local spherical coordinate system . In astronomy , the cardinal points of an astronomical body as seen in

3465-453: The sky are four points defined by the directions toward which the celestial poles lie relative to the center of the disk of the object in the sky. A line (a great circle on the celestial sphere ) from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the edge of the body (the " limb ") at the North point. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to

3528-413: The smallest being at the site of Paxte which is 528 square meters. Some cities contain many smaller plazas throughout, while some focus their attention on a significantly large main plaza. Tenochtitlan was an Aztec city that thrived from 1325 to 1521. The city was built on an island, surrounded on all sides by Lake Texcoco . It consisted of an elaborate system of canals, aqueducts, and causeways allowing

3591-474: The structural use of limestone, much of their mortar consisted of crushed, burnt, and mixed limestone that mimicked the properties of cement and was used just as widely for stucco finishing as it was for mortar. However, later improvements in quarrying techniques reduced the necessity for this limestone-stucco as their stones began to fit quite perfectly, yet it remained a crucial element in some post and lintel roofs. A common building material in central Mexico

3654-406: The talud-tablero style arose throughout Mesoamerica, developing and manifesting itself differently among the various cultures. Palenque, Tikal, Copán, Tonina, the corbeled arch. Chichén Itzá, Tula Hidalgo, chacmools , Atlantean figures , Quetzalcoatl designs. So named after the Puuc hills in which this style developed and flourished during the latter portion of the Late Classic and throughout

3717-409: The tribute/war god Huitzilopochtli. Mexican Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma has shown that the symbolic and ritual life of this imperial shrine unified the patterns of forced tributary payments from hundreds of communities with the agricultural and hydraulic subsystems of food production. Often the most important religious temples sat atop the towering pyramids, presumably as the closest place to

3780-467: The veneer stones have fallen away. The most famous of the Maya sites exhibiting the Puuc architectural style is Uxmal ; other major Puuc-style sites in the region include Labna , Kabah , Sayil and Xlapak . The architectural style is also seen at Kiuic , Bolonchen , Chunhuhub , Xculoc , and many smaller ruins. The transition from earlier Classic Period architecture to Puuc style core-veneer masonry

3843-401: The world an embodiment of their beliefs. This meant that the Mesoamerican city was constructed to be a microcosm , manifesting the same division that existed in the religious, mythical geography—a division between the underworld and the human world. The underworld was represented by the direction north and many structures and buildings related to the underworld, such as tombs, are often found in

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3906-894: Was tezontle (a light, volcanic rock). It was common for palaces and monumental structures to be made of this rough stone and then covered with stucco or with a cantera veneer . Very large and ornate architectural ornaments were fashioned from a very enduring stucco (kalk), especially in the Maya region, where a type of hydraulic limestone cement or concrete was also used. In the case of the common houses, wooden framing, adobe , and thatch were used to build homes over stone foundations. However, instances of what appear to be common houses of limestone have been discovered as well. Buildings were typically finished with high slanted roofs usually built of wood or thatch although stone roofs in these high slant fashions are also used rarely. An architectural construction technique that employs large dry-laid limestone blocks (c. 1 m × 50 cm × 30 cm) covered with

3969-529: Was destroyed by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés in 1521. Cortés and the Spaniards raided the city for its gold supply and artifacts, leaving little behind of the Aztec's civilization. At the monumental Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan, archaeologists discovered that the Aztec enlarged the temple seven times, with five extra façades, but always kept intact the basic dual symbolism of the rain god Tlaloc and

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