71-634: Partido Republicano Puertorriqueño (English: Puerto Rican Republican Party ) was a political party founded in Puerto Rico on July 4, 1899. The party dissolved in 1924 when it split into two factions, both factions forming alliances with other local parties. It was led by Dr. José Celso Barbosa . The origin of the Partido Republicano Puertorriqueño can be traced to the aftermath of the Spanish–American War . Once
142-725: A decreased level of consciousness . Bacterial and viral cases of pneumonia usually result in similar symptoms. Some causes are associated with classic, but non-specific, clinical characteristics. Pneumonia caused by Legionella may occur with abdominal pain, diarrhea , or confusion. Pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is associated with rusty colored sputum. Pneumonia caused by Klebsiella may have bloody sputum often described as "currant jelly". Bloody sputum (known as hemoptysis ) may also occur with tuberculosis , Gram-negative pneumonia, lung abscesses and more commonly acute bronchitis . Pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae may occur in association with swelling of
213-516: A leading cause of death in developing countries, and also among the very old, the very young, and the chronically ill. Pneumonia often shortens the period of suffering among those already close to death and has thus been called "the old man's friend". People with infectious pneumonia often have a productive cough , fever accompanied by shaking chills , shortness of breath , sharp or stabbing chest pain during deep breaths, and an increased rate of breathing . In elderly people, confusion may be
284-401: A stethoscope or increased respiratory rate. Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five years old. Lack of wheezing is an indicator of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with pneumonia, but as an indicator it is not accurate enough to decide whether or not macrolide treatment should be used. The presence of chest pain in children with pneumonia doubles
355-418: A chest radiograph is recommended. Findings do not always match the severity of disease and do not reliably separate between bacterial and viral infection. X-ray presentations of pneumonia may be classified as lobar pneumonia , bronchopneumonia , lobular pneumonia , and interstitial pneumonia . Bacterial, community-acquired pneumonia classically show lung consolidation of one lung segmental lobe , which
426-493: A cough of longer duration, and pulmonary emboli present with acute onset sharp chest pain and shortness of breath. Mild pneumonia should be differentiated from upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). Severe pneumonia should be differentiated from acute heart failure . Pulmonary infiltrates that resolved after giving mechanical ventilation should point to heart failure and atelectasis rather than pneumonia. For recurrent pneumonia, underlying lung cancer, metastasis , tuberculosis,
497-479: A cough or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, greater than 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, low oxygen levels and lower chest indrawing are more sensitive than hearing chest crackles with
568-415: A day or two before other signs. Examination of the chest may be normal, but it may show decreased expansion on the affected side. Harsh breath sounds from the larger airways that are transmitted through the inflamed lung are termed bronchial breathing and are heard on auscultation with a stethoscope. Crackles (rales) may be heard over the affected area during inspiration . Percussion may be dulled over
639-567: A dentist, Guillermo H. Barbosa, who became a surgeon and Pilar Barbosa de Rosario , who became Puerto Ricos first female official historian and married José Ezequiel Rosario. His cousin Jesus, gave birth to Oddosia "Thea" Barbosa. Pneumonia Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as alveoli . Symptoms typically include some combination of productive or dry cough , chest pain , fever, and difficulty breathing . The severity of
710-800: A foreign bodies, immunosuppression, and hypersensitivity should be suspected. Prevention includes vaccination , environmental measures, and appropriate treatment of other health problems. It is believed that, if appropriate preventive measures were instituted globally, mortality among children could be reduced by 400,000; and, if proper treatment were universally available, childhood deaths could be decreased by another 600,000. Vaccination prevents against certain bacterial and viral pneumonias both in children and adults. Influenza vaccines are modestly effective at preventing symptoms of influenza, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends yearly influenza vaccination for every person 6 months and older. Immunizing health care workers decreases
781-400: A higher dose of radiation, and cannot be done at bedside. Lung ultrasound may also be useful in helping to make the diagnosis. Ultrasound is radiation free and can be done at bedside. However, ultrasound requires specific skills to operate the machine and interpret the findings. It may be more accurate than chest X-ray. In people managed in the community, determining the causative agent
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#1732782457826852-462: A history of smoking, a poor ability to cough (such as following a stroke), and a weak immune system . Vaccines to prevent certain types of pneumonia (such as those caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria, linked to influenza , or linked to COVID-19 ) are available. Other methods of prevention include hand washing to prevent infection, and not smoking. Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Pneumonia believed to be due to bacteria
923-547: A party with an ideology of annexation to the United States and called it Partido Republicano Puertorriqueño . This new party favored joining the United States as a federated state and was led by Dr. José Celso Barbosa . In 1924 Partido Republicano de Puerto Rico split into two factions: one faction joined with the pro-autonomy group Union Party to form the Alianza Puertorriqueña (The Alliance), and
994-411: Is another rare cause due to lipids entering the lung. These lipids can either be inhaled or spread to the lungs from elsewhere in the body. Pneumonia frequently starts as an upper respiratory tract infection that moves into the lower respiratory tract. It is a type of pneumonitis (lung inflammation). The normal flora of the upper airway give protection by competing with pathogens for nutrients. In
1065-996: Is associated with Chlamydia psittaci ; farm animals with Coxiella burnetti ; aspiration of stomach contents with anaerobic organisms; and cystic fibrosis with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus . Streptococcus pneumoniae is more common in the winter, and it should be suspected in persons aspirating a large number of anaerobic organisms. In adults, viruses account for about one third of pneumonia cases, and in children for about 15% of them. Commonly implicated agents include rhinoviruses , coronaviruses , influenza virus , respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), adenovirus , and parainfluenza . Herpes simplex virus rarely causes pneumonia, except in groups such as newborns, persons with cancer, transplant recipients, and people with significant burns. After organ transplantation or in otherwise immunocompromised persons, there are high rates of cytomegalovirus pneumonia. Those with viral infections may be secondarily infected with
1136-448: Is associated with an increased risk of pneumonia. Approximately 10% of people who require mechanical ventilation develop ventilator-associated pneumonia , and people with a gastric feeding tube have an increased risk of developing aspiration pneumonia . Moreover, the misplacement of a feeding tube can lead to aspiration pneumonia. 28% of tube malposition results in pneumonia. As with Avanos Medical 's feeding tube placement system,
1207-506: Is available for adults, and has been found to decrease the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease by 74%, but there is insufficient evidence to suggest using the pneumococcal vaccine to prevent pneumonia or death in the general adult population. The CDC recommends that young children and adults over the age of 65 receive the pneumococcal vaccine, as well as older children or younger adults who have an increased risk of getting pneumococcal disease. The pneumococcal vaccine has been shown to reduce
1278-644: Is due primarily to cytokine -induced systemic inflammation . In the developed world , these infections are most common in people returning from travel or in immigrants. Around the world, parasitic pneumonia is most common in the immunodeficient. Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia or noninfectious pneumonia is a class of diffuse lung diseases . They include diffuse alveolar damage , organizing pneumonia , nonspecific interstitial pneumonia , lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia , desquamative interstitial pneumonia , respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease , and usual interstitial pneumonia . Lipoid pneumonia
1349-801: Is due to infections caused primarily by bacteria or viruses and less commonly by fungi and parasites . Although more than 100 strains of infectious agents have been identified, only a few are responsible for the majority of cases. Mixed infections with both viruses and bacteria may occur in roughly 45% of infections in children and 15% of infections in adults. A causative agent may not be isolated in about half of cases despite careful testing. In an active population-based surveillance for community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization in five hospitals in Chicago and Nashville from January 2010 through June 2012, 2259 patients were identified who had radiographic evidence of pneumonia and specimens that could be tested for
1420-460: Is important to treatment, as it correlates to which pathogens are likely suspects, which mechanisms are likely, which antibiotics are likely to work or fail, and which complications can be expected based on the person's health status. Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is acquired in the community, outside of health care facilities. Compared with healthcare-associated pneumonia, it is less likely to involve multidrug-resistant bacteria. Although
1491-445: Is increased. Bacteria are the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), with Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in nearly 50% of cases. Other commonly isolated bacteria include Haemophilus influenzae in 20%, Chlamydophila pneumoniae in 13%, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in 3% of cases; Staphylococcus aureus ; Moraxella catarrhalis ; and Legionella pneumophila . A number of drug-resistant versions of
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#17327824578261562-448: Is known as lobar pneumonia. However, findings may vary, and other patterns are common in other types of pneumonia. Aspiration pneumonia may present with bilateral opacities primarily in the bases of the lungs and on the right side. Radiographs of viral pneumonia may appear normal, appear hyper-inflated, have bilateral patchy areas, or present similar to bacterial pneumonia with lobar consolidation. Radiologic findings may not be present in
1633-587: Is most common in the Southwestern United States. The number of cases of fungal pneumonia has been increasing in the latter half of the 20th century due to increasing travel and rates of immunosuppression in the population. For people infected with HIV/AIDS , PCP is a common opportunistic infection . A variety of parasites can affect the lungs, including Toxoplasma gondii , Strongyloides stercoralis , Ascaris lumbricoides , and Plasmodium malariae . These organisms typically enter
1704-530: Is not cost-effective and typically does not alter management. For people who do not respond to treatment, sputum culture should be considered, and culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis should be carried out in persons with a chronic productive cough. Microbiological evaluation is also indicated in severe pneumonia, alcoholism, asplenia , immunosuppression, HIV infection, and those being empirically treated for MRSA of pseudomonas. Although positive blood culture and pleural fluid culture definitively establish
1775-465: Is sometimes called MCAP (medical care–associated pneumonia). People may become infected with pneumonia in a hospital; this is defined as pneumonia not present at the time of admission (symptoms must start at least 48 hours after admission). It is likely to involve hospital-acquired infections , with higher risk of multidrug-resistant pathogens. People in a hospital often have other medical conditions, which may make them more susceptible to pathogens in
1846-723: Is sometimes more broadly applied to any condition resulting in inflammation of the lungs (caused for example by autoimmune diseases , chemical burns or drug reactions); however, this inflammation is more accurately referred to as pneumonitis . Factors that predispose to pneumonia include smoking, immunodeficiency , alcoholism, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , sickle cell disease (SCD), asthma , chronic kidney disease , liver disease , and biological aging . Additional risks in children include not being breastfed , exposure to cigarette smoke and other air pollution, malnutrition, and poverty. The use of acid-suppressing medications – such as proton-pump inhibitors or H2 blockers –
1917-432: Is treated with antibiotics . If the pneumonia is severe, the affected person is generally hospitalized. Oxygen therapy may be used if oxygen levels are low. Each year, pneumonia affects about 450 million people globally (7% of the population) and results in about 4 million deaths. With the introduction of antibiotics and vaccines in the 20th century, survival has greatly improved. Nevertheless, pneumonia remains
1988-498: Is uncommon, but occurs more commonly in individuals with weakened immune systems due to AIDS, immunosuppressive drugs , or other medical problems. It is most often caused by Histoplasma capsulatum , Blastomyces , Cryptococcus neoformans , Pneumocystis jiroveci ( pneumocystis pneumonia , or PCP), and Coccidioides immitis . Histoplasmosis is most common in the Mississippi River basin , and coccidioidomycosis
2059-512: The Spanish–American War , Barbosa and other doctors who lived in Bayamón traveled to the town of Cataño and took a ferry to the capital. Barbosa, as a member of the Red Cross , went to the aid of the wounded Puerto Rican and Spanish soldiers. He and his party on the ferry had to travel across San Juan Bay at risk, as they were under cannon fire. Barbosa and those with him were recommended by
2130-647: The CORTRAK* 2 EAS, which was recalled in May 2022 by the FDA due to adverse events reported, including pneumonia, caused a total of 60 injuries and 23 patient deaths, as communicated by the FDA. For people with certain variants of the FER gene , the risk of death is reduced in sepsis caused by pneumonia. However, for those with TLR6 variants, the risk of getting Legionnaires' disease
2201-543: The Executive Cabinet under Governor Charles H. Allen , in the first civilian government organized by the United States. He served in the Cabinet until 1917. From 1917 to 1921, Barbosa served in the first elected Puerto Rican Senate . Barbosa was born in 1857 in the city of Bayamón , Puerto Rico to parents of African and European ancestry. He received both his primary and secondary education in Puerto Rico. He
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2272-768: The Spanish government for the Cruz de la Orden del Mérito Naval (The Cross of the Order of Naval Merit) for their bravery. As a result of the war, the United States made Puerto Rico one of its territories. On July 4, 1899, Barbosa formed the pro-statehood Partido Republicano de Puerto Rico . He became known as the father of the statehood for Puerto Rico movement. On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named Barbosa, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón , José de Diego , Manuel Camuñas and Andrés Crosas, as part of an Executive Cabinet under U.S.-appointed Governor Charles H. Allen ,
2343-600: The Spanish–American War came to an end in 1898, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States. At that point, the former Spanish colonial-era parties that existed in Puerto Rico were forced to redefine themselves given the new political reality created by the change in governments. On July 4, 1899, the dissenting wing of one of such parties, the Partido Autonomista ( Autonomist Party ), which had just formed Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo in 1897, founded
2414-496: The U.S. national party unincorporated the Puerto Rico Republican Party from its national roster. Three years later, in 1919, the party resumed its affiliation to the national party with the prospects of Republican victory in the U.S. 1920 Presidential elections . However, Partido Republicano Puertorriqueño has had an ideology of aligning itself with whichever national party would be the party victorious in
2485-513: The above infections are becoming more common, including drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The spreading of organisms is facilitated by certain risk factors. Alcoholism is associated with Streptococcus pneumoniae , anaerobic organisms , and Mycobacterium tuberculosis ; smoking facilitates the effects of Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , Moraxella catarrhalis , and Legionella pneumophila . Exposure to birds
2556-560: The additional feature of pulmonary consolidation . Pneumonia is most commonly classified by where or how it was acquired: community-acquired, aspiration, healthcare-associated , hospital-acquired , and ventilator-associated pneumonia. It may also be classified by the area of the lung affected: lobar, bronchial pneumonia and acute interstitial pneumonia ; or by the causative organism. Pneumonia in children may additionally be classified based on signs and symptoms as non-severe, severe, or very severe. The setting in which pneumonia develops
2627-421: The affected lung, and increased, rather than decreased, vocal resonance distinguishes pneumonia from a pleural effusion . A chest radiograph is frequently used in diagnosis. In people with mild disease, imaging is needed only in those with potential complications, those not having improved with treatment, or those in which the cause is uncertain. If a person is sufficiently sick to require hospitalization,
2698-421: The alveoli, resulting in the consolidation seen on chest X-ray. Viruses may reach the lung by a number of different routes. Respiratory syncytial virus is typically contracted when people touch contaminated objects and then touch their eyes or nose. Other viral infections occur when contaminated airborne droplets are inhaled through the nose or mouth. Once in the upper airway, the viruses may make their way into
2769-517: The bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae , Staphylococcus aureus , or Haemophilus influenzae , particularly when other health problems are present. Different viruses predominate at different times of the year; during flu season , for example, influenza may account for more than half of all viral cases. Outbreaks of other viruses also occur occasionally, including hantaviruses and coronaviruses. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can also result in pneumonia. Fungal pneumonia
2840-449: The blood. Once in the lungs, bacteria may invade the spaces between cells and between alveoli, where the macrophages and neutrophils (defensive white blood cells ) attempt to inactivate the bacteria. The neutrophils also release cytokines, causing a general activation of the immune system. This leads to the fever, chills, and fatigue common in bacterial pneumonia. The neutrophils, bacteria, and fluid from surrounding blood vessels fill
2911-516: The body through direct contact with the skin, ingestion, or via an insect vector. Except for Paragonimus westermani , most parasites do not specifically affect the lungs but involve the lungs secondarily to other sites. Some parasites, in particular those belonging to the Ascaris and Strongyloides genera, stimulate a strong eosinophilic reaction, which may result in eosinophilic pneumonia . In other infections, such as malaria, lung involvement
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2982-546: The cause and support decisions about who should receive antibiotics. Antibiotics are encouraged if the procalcitonin level reaches 0.25 μg/L, strongly encouraged if it reaches 0.5 μg/L, and strongly discouraged if the level is below 0.10 μg/L. In people requiring hospitalization, pulse oximetry , chest radiography and blood tests – including a complete blood count , serum electrolytes , C-reactive protein level, and possibly liver function tests – are recommended. The diagnosis of influenza-like illness can be made based on
3053-652: The condition is variable. Pneumonia is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria, and less commonly by other microorganisms . Identifying the responsible pathogen can be difficult. Diagnosis is often based on symptoms and physical examination . Chest X-rays , blood tests, and culture of the sputum may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired, such as community- or hospital-acquired or healthcare-associated pneumonia. Risk factors for pneumonia include cystic fibrosis , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), sickle cell disease , asthma , diabetes , heart failure,
3124-427: The condition, but they are associated with side effects. Zanamivir or oseltamivir decrease the chance that people who are exposed to the virus will develop symptoms; however, it is recommended that potential side effects are taken into account. Smoking cessation and reducing indoor air pollution , such as that from cooking indoors with wood, crop residues or dung , are both recommended. Smoking appears to be
3195-404: The diagnosis is unlikely. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial cause. The overall impression of a physician appears to be at least as good as decision rules for making or excluding the diagnosis. The World Health Organization has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either
3266-508: The diagnosis of the type of micro-organism involved, a positive sputum culture has to be interpreted with care for the possibility of colonisation of respiratory tract. Testing for other specific organisms may be recommended during outbreaks, for public health reasons. In those hospitalized for severe disease, both sputum and blood cultures are recommended, as well as testing the urine for antigens to Legionella and Streptococcus . Viral infections, can be confirmed via detection of either
3337-758: The early stages of the disease, especially in the presence of dehydration, or may be difficult to interpret in the obese or those with a history of lung disease. Complications such as pleural effusion may also be found on chest radiographs. Laterolateral chest radiographs can increase the diagnostic accuracy of lung consolidation and pleural effusion. A CT scan can give additional information in indeterminate cases and provide more details in those with an unclear chest radiograph (for example occult pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They can be used to exclude pulmonary embolism and fungal pneumonia , and detect lung abscesses in those who are not responding to treatments. However, CT scans are more expensive, have
3408-479: The first Puerto Rican cooperative and named it El Ahorro Colectivo. During the Spanish colonial period, Barbosa was a member of the Partido Autonomista Puro (Pure Autonomous Party), also known as "Partido Histórico" and "Partido Ortodoxo", led by Román Baldorioty de Castro , but left because of ideological differences. In 1898, when the United States bombarded and blockaded San Juan during
3479-539: The first civilian governor of the island. The Executive Cabinet also included six American members. Barbosa served on the Executive Cabinet until 1917, dealing with a variety of governors appointed by the US during that period, and providing continuity in administration. During this period, in 1907 he founded the newspaper El Tiempo , the first bilingual newspaper published on the island. With representative elections authorized in 1917, Barbosa ran for an at-large seat. He
3550-634: The hospital. Ventilator-associated pneumonia occurs in people breathing with the help of mechanical ventilation. Ventilator-associated pneumonia is specifically defined as pneumonia that arises more than 48 to 72 hours after endotracheal intubation . Several diseases can present with similar signs and symptoms to pneumonia, such as: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pulmonary edema , bronchiectasis , lung cancer, and pulmonary emboli . Unlike pneumonia, asthma and COPD typically present with wheezing, pulmonary edema presents with an abnormal electrocardiogram , cancer and bronchiectasis present with
3621-585: The latter are no longer rare in CAP, they are still less likely. Prior stays in healthcare-related environments such as hospitals, nursing homes, or hemodialysis centers or a history of receiving domiciliary care can increase patients' risk for CAP caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Health care–associated pneumonia (HCAP) is an infection associated with recent exposure to the health care system, including hospitals, outpatient clinics, nursing homes , dialysis centers, chemotherapy treatment, or home care . HCAP
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#17327824578263692-431: The lower airways, reflexes of the glottis , actions of complement proteins and immunoglobulins are important for protection. Micro aspiration of contaminated secretions can infect the lower airways and cause pneumonia. The progress of pneumonia is determined by the virulence of the organism; the amount of organism required to start an infection; and the body's immune response against the infection. Most bacteria enter
3763-464: The lungs via small aspirations of organisms residing in the throat or nose. Half of normal people have these small aspirations during sleep. While the throat always contains bacteria, potentially infectious ones reside there only at certain times and under certain conditions. A minority of types of bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Legionella pneumophila reach the lungs via contaminated airborne droplets. Bacteria can also spread via
3834-418: The lungs, many viruses simultaneously affect other organs and thus disrupt other body functions. Viruses also make the body more susceptible to bacterial infections; in this way, bacterial pneumonia can occur at the same time as viral pneumonia. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and often a chest X-ray . In adults with normal vital signs and a normal lung examination,
3905-433: The lungs, where they invade the cells lining the airways, alveoli, or lung parenchyma . Some viruses such as measles and herpes simplex may reach the lungs via the blood. The invasion of the lungs may lead to varying degrees of cell death. When the immune system responds to the infection, even more lung damage may occur. Primarily white blood cells, mainly mononuclear cells , generate the inflammation. As well as damaging
3976-400: The lymph nodes in the neck , joint pain , or a middle ear infection . Viral pneumonia presents more commonly with wheezing than bacterial pneumonia. Pneumonia was historically divided into "typical" and "atypical" based on the belief that the presentation predicted the underlying cause. However, evidence has not supported this distinction, therefore it is no longer emphasized. Pneumonia
4047-524: The most prominent sign. The typical signs and symptoms in children under five are fever, cough, and fast or difficult breathing. Fever is not very specific, as it occurs in many other common illnesses and may be absent in those with severe disease, malnutrition or in the elderly. In addition, a cough is frequently absent in children less than 2 months old. More severe signs and symptoms in children may include blue-tinged skin , unwillingness to drink, convulsions, ongoing vomiting, extremes of temperature, or
4118-513: The other faction formed Partido Republicano Puro (Pure Republican Party) and joined with the Socialist Party to form the pro-statehood bloc called Coalición (The Coalition). The 1924 split brought Partido Republicano de Puerto Rico to an end. In 1903, the party became an affiliate of the national Republican Party of the United States . This affiliation lasted until 1916 when, with the victory of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson ,
4189-407: The presidential elections and, with time, future U.S. Republican administrations showed little interest in Puerto Rico's local Partido Republicano Puertorriqueño. Jos%C3%A9 Celso Barbosa José Celso Barbosa Alcala (July 27, 1857 – September 21, 1921) was a Puerto Rican physician , sociologist and political leader. Known as the father of the statehood movement in Puerto Rico , Barbosa
4260-421: The probability of Mycoplasma pneumoniae . In general, in adults, investigations are not needed in mild cases. There is a very low risk of pneumonia if all vital signs and auscultation are normal. C-reactive protein (CRP) may help support the diagnosis. For those with CRP less than 20 mg/L without convincing evidence of pneumonia, antibiotics are not recommended. Procalcitonin may help determine
4331-500: The responsible pathogen. Most patients (62%) had no detectable pathogens in their sample, and unexpectedly, respiratory viruses were detected more frequently than bacteria. Specifically, 23% had one or more viruses, 11% had one or more bacteria, 3% had both bacterial and viral pathogens, and 1% had a fungal or mycobacterial infection. "The most common pathogens were human rhinovirus (in 9% of patients), influenza virus (in 6%), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (in 5%)." The term pneumonia
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#17327824578264402-519: The risk of community acquired pneumonia in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, but does not reduce mortality or the risk of hospitalization for people with this condition. People with COPD are recommended by a number of guidelines to have a pneumococcal vaccination. Other vaccines for which there is support for a protective effect against pneumonia include pertussis , varicella , and measles . When influenza outbreaks occur, medications such as amantadine or rimantadine may help prevent
4473-521: The risk of viral pneumonia among their patients. Vaccinations against Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae have good evidence to support their use. There is strong evidence for vaccinating children under the age of 2 against Streptococcus pneumoniae ( pneumococcal conjugate vaccine ). Vaccinating children against Streptococcus pneumoniae has led to a decreased rate of these infections in adults, because many adults acquire infections from children. A Streptococcus pneumoniae vaccine
4544-527: The signs and symptoms; however, confirmation of an influenza infection requires testing. Thus, treatment is frequently based on the presence of influenza in the community or a rapid influenza test . Adults 65 years old or older, as well as cigarette smokers and people with ongoing medical conditions are at increased risk for pneumonia. Physical examination may sometimes reveal low blood pressure , high heart rate , or low oxygen saturation . The respiratory rate may be faster than normal, and this may occur
4615-468: The single biggest risk factor for pneumococcal pneumonia in otherwise-healthy adults. Hand hygiene and coughing into one's sleeve may also be effective preventative measures. Wearing surgical masks by the sick may also prevent illness. Appropriately treating underlying illnesses (such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes mellitus , and malnutrition) can decrease the risk of pneumonia. In children less than 6 months of age, exclusive breast feeding reduces both
4686-496: The virus or its antigens with culture or polymerase chain reaction (PCR), among other techniques. Mycoplasma , Legionella , Streptococcus , and Chlamydia can also be detected using PCR techniques on bronchoalveolar lavage and nasopharyngeal swab . The causative agent is determined in only 15% of cases with routine microbiological tests. Pneumonitis refers to lung inflammation; pneumonia refers to pneumonitis, usually due to infection but sometimes non-infectious, that has
4757-638: Was denied admission to the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University, due to his race. He then applied and was admitted to the medical school of the University of Michigan , where he graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1880. Barbosa was the first person from Puerto Rico to earn a medical degree in the United States. He returned to Puerto Rico, where he set up a practice in his hometown of Bayamón. The Spanish colonial government initially did not recognize Barbosa's medical degree, as it
4828-755: Was elected, serving as a member of the first Puerto Rican Senate , from 1917 to 1921. José Celso Barbosa died in San Juan on September 21, 1921. He was buried in Santa Maria Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery in Old San Juan . One of his daughters, Pilar Barbosa , became a historian, serving as the Official Historian of Puerto Rico from 1993 to 1997. She was also a political activist who carried on her father's work. Barbosa had twelve children including, Roberto C. Barbosa who became
4899-406: Was not from a known European university. The American consul to the island intervened on behalf of Barbosa to have his United States degree recognized, so that he could practice. Barbosa provided medical care all over the island. He introduced the novel idea of employers paying a fee for the future healthcare needs of their employees (a very early health insurance system). In 1893, Barbosa founded
4970-492: Was the first Puerto Rican, and one of the first persons of African descent to earn a medical degree in the United States . After his return to the island in 1880, Barbosa made many contributions to medicine and public health. He initiated an early form of health insurance, encouraging employers to pay a fee to cover future needs of their employees. In 1900 Barbosa was among the first five Puerto Rican leaders appointed to
5041-538: Was the first person of African ancestry to attend Puerto Rico's prestigious Jesuit Seminary. After graduating from the seminary, Barbosa tutored private students to save money to attend college. In 1875, he moved to New York City to attend prep school, where he learned English in a year. Originally Barbosa wished to become a lawyer, but after he suffered a bout of pneumonia in New York City , his doctor recommended that he study medicine. In 1877 he applied but
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