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122-551: The name Pullman was indirectly inspired by George Pullman (1831–1897), founder of the Pullman Company , a prosperous 19th-century, Chicago-based railroad manufacturer. The Pullman Company was famous for launching the first sleeping trains in the United States and developing upscale services for railroad travelers. Belgian Georges Nagelmackers (1845–1905) traveled to the United States in 1867-1868 and came back with

244-610: A Corinthian column flanked by curved stone benches, was designed by Solon Spencer Beman , the architect of the company town of Pullman. Pullman was initiated into Freemasonry in Renovation Lodge No. 97 in Albion, New York. He was also member of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry and received the honorary 33rd degree within that body. Pullman was identified with various public enterprises, among them

366-658: A black man was met with outrage, but Cleveland claimed to have known Matthews personally. Although Cleveland had condemned the "outrages" against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act , and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act , written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott , which prevented

488-595: A conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England 's Republican Senators. Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration of the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo . Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend

610-592: A job there as district secretary for the American Home Missionary Society . Despite his father's dedication to his missionary work, his income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school and place him in a two-year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville. The experience was valuable and brief, and the living conditions quite austere. Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at

732-463: A lead-lined mahogany coffin, which was then sealed inside a block of concrete. At the cemetery, a large pit had been dug at the family plot. At its base and walls were 18 inches of reinforced concrete. The coffin was lowered, and covered with asphalt and tar paper. More concrete was poured on top, followed by a layer of steel rails bolted together at right angles, and another layer of concrete. The entire burial process took two days. His monument, featuring

854-467: A lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house . He devoted his growing income to the support of his mother and younger sisters. While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and "the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons ". He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle-in-law's family traveled. From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with

976-484: A machine using jack screws that could move buildings or other structures out of the way and onto new foundations and had patented it in 1841. By that time, packet boats carried people on day excursions along the canal, plus travellers and freight craft would be towed across the state along the busy canal. Pullman attended local schools and helped his father, learning other skills that contributed to his later success. In 1853, Lewis died, and George took over his business at

1098-652: A minority stake in CIWL. After fully acquiring CIWL in 1991, AccorHotels turned all Pullman Hotels into Sofitel Hotels in 1993, thus taking the Pullman brand off the market. In 2007, AccorHotels revived the upscale Pullman hotel brand to cater to business travelers. The 24-storey Pullman Dubai Mall of the Emirates (MoE) Hotel, the first of Pullman's properties in the Middle East, opened in 2010. Its fourth property in

1220-425: A new coastal fortification system for the United States. No improvements to U.S. coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s. The Board's 1886 report recommended a massive $ 127 million construction program (equivalent to $ 4.3 billion in 2023) at 29 harbors and river estuaries , to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields . The Board and the program are usually called

1342-515: A new kitchen concept, newly designed interiors, and up-to-date technology upgrades. Accor also announced the plan to reach 150 Pullman Hotels and Resorts by 2020. In 2014, the AccorHotels group announced its intent to double its Asia-Pacific portfolio with the opening of 47 new Pullman hotels in the region, 38 of those in China. That same year, the 338-room Pullman Shanghai South opened, making it

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1464-541: A percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182. Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma ..." attack phrase gained a classic riposte: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!" Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system , but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who

1586-523: A refutation buried in Cleveland's past. Aided by the sermons of Reverend George H. Ball , a minister from Buffalo, they made public the allegation that Cleveland had fathered a child while he was a lawyer there, and their rallies soon included the chant "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?". When confronted with the scandal, Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to "Above all, tell the truth." He admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin,

1708-491: A split in the state Republican Party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; several men contended for that party's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry Warner Slocum . Their factions deadlocked and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Cleveland, who came in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as

1830-482: The 1884 presidential election , which he narrowly won against Republican James G. Blaine . In the 1888 election, he ran against Benjamin Harrison, winning the popular vote but losing the electoral college and therefore the election. After his loss, he returned to New York City and joined a law firm . In the 1892 election , Cleveland defeated Harrison in both the popular vote and electoral college, restoring him to

1952-460: The Battle of Bunker Hill , and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey . On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland , after whom the city of Cleveland , Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of

2074-458: The Blue Room at the White House. Cleveland was 49 years old at the time; Frances was 21. He was the second president to wed while in office and remains the only president to marry in the White House. This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death; nevertheless, the public took no exception to

2196-649: The Bourbon Democrats , a pro-business movement opposed to high tariffs , free silver , inflation , imperialism , and subsidies to businesses, farmers, or veterans . His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the time. Cleveland also won praise for honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism . His fight against political corruption, patronage, and bossism convinced many like-minded Republicans, called " Mugwumps ", to cross party lines and support him in

2318-609: The Democratic Party . He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln , and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats. In 1865, he ran for District Attorney , losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass , the Republican nominee. In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for sheriff of Erie County, New York . He won

2440-506: The Illinois Central Railroad for $ 800,000. Pullman hired Solon Spencer Beman to design his new plant there. Trying to solve the issue of labor unrest and poverty, he also built a company town adjacent to his factory; it featured housing, shopping areas, churches, theaters, parks, hotel and library for his factory employees. The 1300 original structures were entirely designed by Solon Spencer Beman . The centerpiece of

2562-553: The Navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships. Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of Western lands they held by government grant. Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q. C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited, resulting in

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2684-548: The Pennsylvania Railroad trunk lines. The French social scientist Paul de Rousiers (1857–1934), who visited Chicago in 1890, wrote of Pullman's manufacturing complex, "Everything is done in order and with precision. One feels that some brain of superior intelligence, backed by a long technical experience, has thought out every possible detail." In 1880, Pullman bought 4,000 acres (16 km ), near Lake Calumet some 14 mi (23 km) south of Chicago, on

2806-632: The Pension Bureau , Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic , passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that. In his first term alone, Cleveland used the veto 414 times, which was more than four times more often than any previous president had used it. In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, that of

2928-570: The President and the Delmonico and subsequent Pullman sleeping cars offered first-rate service. The company hired African-American freedmen as Pullman porters. Many of the men had been former domestic slaves in the South. Their new roles required them to act as porters, waiters, valets, and entertainers, all rolled into one person. As they were paid relatively well and got to travel the country,

3050-490: The Pullman Strike due to the high rent prices charged for company housing and low wages paid by the Pullman Company . His Pullman Company also hired black men to staff the Pullman cars, known as Pullman porters , who provided elite service and were compensated only in tips. Struggling to maintain profitability during an 1894 downturn in manufacturing demand, he halved wages and required workers to spend long hours at

3172-723: The Supreme Court of Illinois forced the Pullman Company to divest ownership in the town, which was annexed to Chicago. On October 19, 1897, Pullman died of a heart attack in Chicago, Illinois. He was 66 years old. Pullman was buried at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago, Illinois. George and his wife Hattie had four children: Florence, Harriett, George Jr. and Walter Sanger Pullman. Fearing that some of his former employees or other labor supporters might try to dig up his body, his family arranged for his remains to be placed in

3294-530: The Supreme Court of Illinois ordered the Pullman Company to divest itself of the town, which became a neighborhood of the city of Chicago. Pullman was born in 1831 in Brocton, New York , the son of Emily Caroline (Minton) and carpenter James Lewis Pullman (known as Lewis). His family moved to Albion, New York , along the Erie Canal in 1845, so his father could help widen the canal. His father had invented

3416-539: The Texas Seed Bill . After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 3,391,111 in 2023) to purchase seed grain for farmers there. Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government: I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of

3538-468: The U.S. Constitution , which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans. Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C., and appointed another black man ( James Campbell Matthews , a former New York judge) to replace Douglass upon his resignation. His decision to replace Douglass with

3660-472: The contested election of 1876 . After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health, his supporters shifted to several other contenders. Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware , Allen G. Thurman of Ohio , Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa , and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons . Each of

3782-548: The plantation South had the right combination of training to serve the businessmen who would patronize his "Palace Cars". Pullman became the biggest single employer of African Americans in post-Civil War America. In 1869, Pullman bought out the Detroit Car and Manufacturing Company. Pullman bought the patents and business of his eastern competitor, the Central Transportation Company in 1870. In

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3904-511: The " Baby Ruth " candy bar was named after her. Cleveland also claimed paternity of a child with Maria Crofts Halpin, Oscar Folsom Cleveland, who was born in 1874. During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. Lamar's nomination

4026-945: The 15th Pullman property in China, and the 45th in Asia-Pacific. In 2015, the Sofitel Miami Airport was turned into a Pullman hotel, the first Pullman property in North America. By the end of 2015, 95 Pullman locations were opened. The first property of Pullman in Japan , the Pullman Tokyo Tamachi, opened in 2018. In 2017, Pullman launched the Artist Playground program in Brussels , where every Pullman hotel independently looks for local talents to exhibit their art. The hotel managers and

4148-712: The Congressional elections that year , and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress, but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform. As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only. His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at right) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses. Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall , believed that American industries would fail without high tariffs, and they continued to fight reform efforts. Roger Q. Mills , chairman of

4270-541: The Democrats' strongest asset. William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan "A public office is a public trust." Reform-minded Republicans called " Mugwumps " denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher , were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. At

4392-471: The Ely and Smith partnership to raise the six storey high Tremont House . Pullman contracted to raise these and many other large buildings in Chicago, and his firm raised the buildings on average six feet without causing them any damage and often times while the buildings were still fully operational, with people entering and exiting them and conducting business within. Pullman developed a railroad sleeping car ,

4514-726: The Endicott Board and the Endicott Program. Most of the Board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts. Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses. Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions. For the Navy, the Cleveland administration, spearheaded by Secretary of

4636-824: The Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Grammar School (not the Clinton Liberal Institute). After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. Cleveland returned home to Holland Patent at

4758-511: The First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time. He became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York , where Grover spent much of his childhood. Neighbors later described him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks", and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Cleveland's father Richard moved his family to Clinton, New York , accepting

4880-578: The House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47% to about 40%. After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House. The Republican Senate failed to come to an agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee . Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election. Cleveland

5002-1050: The Hôtel Terminus in Bordeaux and Marseille, the Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul, the Hôtel de la Plage in Ostend, and the Grand Hôtel des Wagons-Lits in Beijing. 30 years later, the CIWL introduced the Pullman wagons in Europe, which were designed for upscale leisure traveling. The Pullman brand became so popular that CIWL's top hotels were turned into Pullman Hotels. In June 1990, the AccorHotels group bought

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5124-535: The Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State. The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states , did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican, Samuel D. Burchard , gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as

5246-475: The Matteson House, a large brick built hotel. Pullman and Moore went on to raise several more Chicago buildings before becoming part of a consortium that raised the entire ninety-eight metre long block of four and five storey brick and stone buildings on the north side of Lake Street between Clark and La Salle Streets, a feat depicted by Edward Mendel in a large lithograph. In 1861 Pullman contracted with

5368-670: The Metropolitan elevated railway system of New York. It was constructed and opened to the public by a corporation of which he was president. The Pullman Company merged in 1930 with Standard Steel Car Company to become Pullman-Standard, which built its last car for Amtrak in 1982. After delivery the Pullman-Standard plant stayed in limbo, and eventually shut down. In 1987, its remaining assets were absorbed by Bombardier . Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908)

5490-490: The Navy William Collins Whitney , moved towards modernization, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships. Although completion of the four steel-hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once

5612-564: The Providence Asylum. Halpin was only kept at the asylum for five days because she was deemed not to be insane. Cleveland later provided financial support for her to begin her own business outside of Buffalo. Although lacking irrefutable evidence that Cleveland was the father, the child became a campaign issue for the Republican Party in Cleveland's first presidential campaign, where they smeared him by claiming that he

5734-763: The Pullman Church, and when we die we shall go to the Pullman Hell. The Pullman community is a historic district that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In the 1930s, Hotel Florence, named for Pullman's daughter, was one of the most popular brothels in the city. Marktown , Indiana, Clayton Mark 's planned worker community, was developed nearby. In 1894, when manufacturing demand fell off, Pullman cut jobs and wages and increased working hours in his plant to lower costs and keep profits, but he did not lower rents or prices in

5856-402: The Pullman sleeper or "palace car". These were designed after the packet boats that travelled the Erie Canal of his youth in Albion. The first one was finished in 1864. After President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, Pullman arranged to have his body carried from Washington, D.C., to Springfield on a sleeper, for which he gained national attention, as hundreds of thousands of people lined

5978-612: The South". On May 12, 1894, the workers went on strike. The American Railway Union was led by Eugene Victor Debs , a pacifist and socialist who later founded the Socialist Party of America and was its candidate for president in five elections. Under the leadership of Debs, sympathetic railroad workers across the nation tied up rail traffic to the Pacific. The so-called "Debs Rebellion" had begun. Arcade Building with strikers and soldiers Debs gave Pullman five days to respond to

6100-474: The White House. As his second administration began, the Panic of 1893 sparked a severe national depression. Many voters blamed the Democrats, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and Silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. An anti-imperialist , Cleveland opposed the push to annex Hawaii , launched an investigation into the 1893 coup against Queen Liliʻuokalani , and called for her to be restored. Cleveland

6222-430: The age of 22. Pullman was a clerk for a country merchant. Pullman took over the family business . In 1856, Pullman won a contract with the State of New York to move 20 buildings out of the way of the widening canal. During the 1850s, the streets in Chicago often resembled a swamp, as the city had been built to too low an elevation on the shore of Lake Michigan. The city undertook to re-engineer its sewage system to clear

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6344-430: The art magazine Wallpaper took part in the curation process. [REDACTED] Media related to Pullman hotels at Wikimedia Commons George Pullman George Mortimer Pullman (March 3, 1831 – October 19, 1897) was an American engineer and industrialist. He designed and manufactured the Pullman sleeping car and founded a company town in Chicago for the workers who manufactured it. This ultimately led to

6466-405: The bonds of a common brotherhood. One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines, with Western Republicans and Southern Democrats joining in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver

6588-438: The company town. The workers eventually launched a strike. When violence broke out, he gained the support of President Grover Cleveland for the use of United States troops. Cleveland sent in the troops, who harshly suppressed the strike in action that caused many injuries, over the objections of the Illinois governor, John Altgeld . In the winter of 1893–94, at the start of a depression, Pullman decided to cut wages by 30%. This

6710-419: The completion of the apprentice contract. In 1853, missionary work began to take a toll on Richard's health. He took a new work assignment in Holland Patent, New York (near Utica ) and moved his family once again. Shortly after, Richard Cleveland died from a gastric ulcer . Grover was said to have learned about his father's death from a boy selling newspapers. Cleveland received his elementary education at

6832-555: The complex was the Administration Building and a man-made lake. The Hotel Florence , named for Pullman's daughter, was built nearby. Pullman believed that the country air and fine facilities, without agitators, saloons and city vice districts, would result in a happy, loyal workforce. The model planned community became a leading attraction for visitors who attended the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. It attracted nationwide attention. The national press praised Pullman for his benevolence and vision. According to mortality statistics, it

6954-440: The compromise choice. With Republicans still divided heading into the general election , Cleveland emerged the victor, receiving 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger 's 342,464. Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election. The Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature . Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to

7076-416: The culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money." The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder. Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this plan

7198-439: The election by a 303-vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871, at age 33. While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $ 40,000, equivalent to $ 1,017,333 in 2023, over the two-year term. Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable. Biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically. Cleveland

7320-402: The end of 1854, where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he promised to become a minister. Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west. He stopped first in Buffalo, New York , where his uncle-in-law Lewis F. Allen , gave him a clerical job. Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew-in-law to influential men there, including

7442-456: The end of his second term, he was severely unpopular, even among Democrats. After leaving the White House, Cleveland served as a trustee of Princeton University and continued to voice his political views. He died in 1908. Today, Cleveland is praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals, defying party boundaries, and effective leadership and is typically ranked in the middle to upper tier of U.S. presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland

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7564-415: The famous Olympia ), one armored cruiser , and one monitor were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser Vesuvius . Under Cleveland, gains in civil rights for African Americans were limited. Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners and nearly all white Southerners, saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of

7686-474: The first 15 months of his administration. Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan , Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long. In 1885, the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College . When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married. The wedding occurred on June 2, 1886, in

7808-412: The general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support

7930-412: The governor's office. He promptly sent the legislature eight vetoes in his first two months in office. The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents. The bill had broad support because the trains' owner, Jay Gould , was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced. Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over

8052-424: The hanging, Cleveland executed Morrissey himself. He hanged another murderer, John Gaffney , on February 14, 1873. After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell . Bass was later replaced by George J. Sicard . Elected to Congress in 1872, Bass did not spend much time at the firm, but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to

8174-485: The idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act , which would allow lands held in trust by the federal government for the tribes to instead be distributed to individual tribe members. While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it. Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society. It ultimately weakened

8296-448: The incident. The national commission report found Pullman's paternalism partly to blame and described Pullman's company town as "un-American". The report condemned Pullman for refusing to negotiate and for the economic hardships he created for workers in the town of Pullman. "The aesthetic features are admired by visitors, but have little money value to employees, especially when they lack bread." The State of Illinois filed suit, and in 1898,

8418-467: The investigation was over. Sixteen additional steel-hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish–American War of 1898, and many served in World War I. These ships included the "second-class battleships " Maine and Texas , designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe, such as the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo . Eleven protected cruisers (including

8540-424: The mail. On July 8, soldiers began shooting strikers. That was the beginning of the end of the strike. By the end of the month, 34 people had been killed, the strikers were dispersed, the troops were gone, the courts had sided with the railway owners, and Debs was in jail for contempt of court. Pullman's reputation was soiled by the strike, and then officially tarnished by the presidential commission that investigated

8662-518: The match. At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was and remains the youngest First Lady in history, and soon became popular for her warm personality. The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904), Esther (1893–1980), Marion (1895–1977), Richard (1897–1974), and Francis (1903–1995). British philosopher Philippa Foot (1920–2010) was their granddaughter. Ruth contracted diphtheria on January 2, 1904, and died five days after her diagnosis. The Curtiss Candy Company would later assert that

8784-431: The middle class". In 1867, Pullman introduced his first "hotel on wheels," the President , a sleeper with an attached kitchen and dining car. The food rivaled the best restaurants of the day and the service was impeccable. A year later in 1868, he launched the Delmonico , the world's first sleeping car devoted to fine cuisine. The Delmonico menu was prepared by chefs from New York's famed Delmonico's Restaurant . Both

8906-473: The most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter", giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter! ' " Regarding Cleveland, commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that, "Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude." But the Republicans found

9028-595: The municipal legislation they cooperated on gained Cleveland national recognition. In June 1884, the Republican Party convened their national convention in Chicago , selecting former U.S. House Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine as their nominee for president. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans, including the Mugwumps , who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. The Republican standard-bearer

9150-559: The name of Oscar Folsom, or any one else, with that boy, for that purpose is simply infamous and false." The electoral votes of closely contested New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New York, the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them. Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while

9272-510: The nature of his enemies made him still more friends. Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820. On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, who won. Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate. Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals. Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved

9394-555: The old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway , later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. On some of

9516-578: The other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the Southern United States for his actions during the Civil War ; Thurman was generally well-liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the silver question were uncertain. Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but

9638-479: The partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers. Millard Fillmore , the 13th president of the United States, had previously worked for the partnership. Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law with them, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1859. Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years before leaving in 1862 to start his own practice. In January 1863, he

9760-446: The party of "Rum, Romanism , and Rebellion". The Democrats spread the word of this implied anti-Catholic insult on the eve of the election. They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City's wealthiest men. After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1,200 votes. While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of

9882-447: The people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens

10004-482: The plan to build the equivalent of the Pullman Company in Europe, the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL). The fast-growing railroad networks led the rail industry to invest in the construction and management of hotels alongside railroad tracks. In 1894, the CIWL created the Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels to manage its growing collection of hotels worldwide, which included

10126-471: The plant, but did not lower prices of rents and goods in his company town. He gained presidential support by Grover Cleveland for the use of federal military troops which left 30 strikers dead in the violent suppression of workers there to end the Pullman Strike of 1894. A national commission was appointed to investigate the strike, which included assessment of operations of the company town. In 1898,

10248-420: The position became considered prestigious, and Pullman porters were respected in the black communities. Pullman believed that if his sleeper cars were to be successful, he needed to provide a wide variety of services to travelers: collecting tickets, selling berths, dispatching wires, fetching sandwiches, mending torn trousers, converting day coaches into sleepers, etc. Pullman believed that former house slaves of

10370-571: The railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again. Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution . Despite the initial popularity of the fare-reduction bill, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto. Theodore Roosevelt , then a member of the Assembly , had reluctantly voted for the bill with the intention of holding railroad barons accountable. After

10492-531: The re-election of Thomas F. Grady , their point man in the State Senate. Cleveland also steadfastly opposed other Tammany nominees, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal-making. The loss of Tammany's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans, who helped Cleveland pass several laws to reform municipal governments. Cleveland closely worked with Roosevelt, who served as assembly minority leader in 1883;

10614-788: The region, the Pullman Dubai Jumeirah Lakes Towers, opened in 2015. In 2012, Pullman Hotels announced 12 openings in Indonesia within 5 years, opened its first property in the UK (the Pullman London St Pancras) and in Vietnam, and China became its biggest market. By 2013, Pullman had opened 79 properties, half of those located in the Asia-Pacific region. In 2013, Pullman Hotels adopted a new visual identity. Pullman hotels adopted new staff uniforms,

10736-412: The return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States. The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888. Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state , saying in his first inaugural address that "[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights." He encouraged

10858-864: The return of approximately 81,000,000 acres (330,000 km ). Cleveland was the first Democratic president subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent. Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887. As Congress and its Republican-led Senate sent Cleveland legislation he opposed, he often resorted to using his veto power. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by

10980-524: The route in homage. Lincoln's body was carried on the Presidential train car that Lincoln himself had commissioned that year. Pullman had cars in the train, notably for the President's surviving family. Orders for his new car began to pour into his company. The sleeping cars proved successful although each cost more than five times the price of a regular railway car. They were marketed as "luxury for

11102-600: The same time that the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback-Labor party , led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler. In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition. The campaign focused on the candidates' moral standards, as each side cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed

11224-489: The spring of 1871, Pullman, Andrew Carnegie , and others bailed out the financially troubled Union Pacific ; they took positions on its board of directors. By 1875, the Pullman firm owned $ 100,000 worth of patents, had 700 cars in operation, and had several hundred thousand dollars in the bank. In 1887, Pullman designed and established the system of " vestibuled trains ," with cars linked by covered gangways instead of open platforms. The vestibules were first put in service on

11346-468: The surface of the unwanted and often pathogenic standing water. This project necessitated the raising of the street level an average of over a metre. As the streets rose above the front doors of the adjacent buildings, the latter needed to be demolished and rebuilt or else physically raised so as to meet the newly raised level of the street. In 1859 Pullman and his fellow Albion-based business partner Charles Moore moved to Chicago to raise one such building,

11468-473: The tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus. In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House. The tariff issue was emphasized in

11590-460: The top of Buffalo's legal community. Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable and unexceptional. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "Probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States." It

11712-541: The tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money. In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order. Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them. Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with

11834-431: The tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory. Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan , at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter. Cleveland was 47 years old when he entered the White House as a bachelor. His sister Rose Cleveland joined him, acting as hostess for

11956-419: The union demands but Pullman refused even to negotiate (leading another industrialist to yell, "The damned idiot ought to arbitrate, arbitrate and arbitrate! ...A man who won't meet his own men halfway is a God-damn fool!"). Instead, Pullman locked up his home and business and left town. On June 26, all Pullman cars were cut from trains. When union members were fired, entire rail lines were shut down, and Chicago

12078-451: The veto, Roosevelt and other legislators reversed their position, and Cleveland's veto was sustained. Cleveland's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim. Yet it also brought the enmity of New York City's influential Tammany Hall organization and its boss, John Kelly . Tammany Hall and Kelly had disapproved of Cleveland's nomination for governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented

12200-529: The votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. Party leaders approached Cleveland, who agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo provided the party's slate of candidates for other offices was to his liking. More notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket and he accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor that November with 15,120 votes, while his Republican opponent Milton Earl Beebe received 11,528 votes. He took office on January 2, 1882. Cleveland's term as mayor

12322-478: The war. As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work. In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid , working on a pro bono basis (free of charge). In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo's Commercial Advertiser . During this time, Cleveland assumed

12444-416: The woman who asserted he had fathered her son Oscar Folsom Cleveland and he assumed responsibility. Shortly before the 1884 election , the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland, her "life was pure and spotless", and "there is not, and never was, a doubt as to the paternity of our child, and the attempt of Grover Cleveland, or his friends, to couple

12566-477: Was "immoral" and for allegedly acting cruelly by not raising the child himself. In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office. When the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians for the 1881 election, Democrats saw an opportunity to gain

12688-471: Was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Cleveland's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck

12810-472: Was a formidable policymaker but also garnered criticism. He intervened in the 1894 Pullman Strike to keep the railroads moving, angering Illinois Democrats and labor unions nationwide; his support of the gold standard and opposition to free silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democrats. Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters— depressions and strikes —in his second term. By

12932-415: Was a retention of the status quo , and a postponement of the resolution of the free-silver issue. Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff . These tariffs had been implemented as a temporary measure during the civil war to protect American industrial interests but remained in place after the war. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on

13054-551: Was allowed. He prohibited private charitable organizations. In 1885 Richard Ely wrote in Harper's Weekly that the power exercised by Otto Von Bismarck (known as the unifier of modern Germany), was "utterly insignificant when compared with the ruling authority of the Pullman Palace Car Company in Pullman". We are born in a Pullman house, fed from the Pullman shops, taught in the Pullman school, catechized in

13176-574: Was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County, New York . With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863 , requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $ 150, equivalent to $ 3,712 in 2023, to George Benninsky, a thirty-two-year-old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place. Benninsky survived

13298-403: Was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it. A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, when Patrick Morrissey was executed. He had been convicted of murdering his mother. As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $ 10 to perform the task. In spite of reservations about

13420-423: Was besieged. One consequence was a blockade of the federal mail, and Debs agreed to let isolated mail cars into the city. Rail owners mixed mail cars into all their trains however, and then called in the federal government when the mail failed to get through. Debs could not pacify the pent-up frustrations of the exploited workers, and violence broke out between rioters and the federal troops that were sent to protect

13542-579: Was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey , to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland . Cleveland's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut . His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller. On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland , England, in 1635. His father's maternal grandfather , Richard Falley Jr. , fought at

13664-419: Was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service. He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers. Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this

13786-553: Was during this period that Cleveland began courting a widow, Maria Halpin . She later accused him of raping her. It is unclear if Halpin was actually raped by Cleveland as some early reports stated or if their relationship was consensual. In March 1876, Cleveland accused Halpin of being an alcoholic and had her child removed from her custody. The child was taken to the Protestant Orphan Asylum, and Cleveland paid for his stay there. Cleveland had Halpin admitted to

13908-585: Was especially the case with policymaking positions. While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations. Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government. In 1887, he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission . He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize

14030-462: Was further weakened when the Conkling faction and President Chester Arthur refused to give Blaine their strong support. Democratic party leaders believed the Republicans' choice gave them an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found. Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in

14152-449: Was inaugurated. Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents. In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland , introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency. While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement. The result

14274-564: Was not unusual in the age of the robber barons, but he didn't reduce the rent in Pullman, because he had guaranteed his investors a 6% return on their investments in the town. A workman might make $ 9.07 in a fortnight, and the rent of $ 9 would be taken directly out of his paycheck, leaving him with just 7 cents to feed his family. One worker later testified: "I have seen men with families of eight or nine children crying because they got only three or four cents after paying their rent." Another described conditions as "slavery worse than that of Negroes of

14396-568: Was one of the most healthful places in the world. The industrialist still expected the town to make money as an enterprise. By 1892, the community, profitable in its own right, was valued at over $ 5 million. Pullman ruled the town like a feudal baron. Pullman prohibited independent newspapers, public speeches, town meetings or open discussion. His inspectors regularly entered homes to inspect for cleanliness and could terminate workers' leases on ten days' notice. The church stood empty since no approved denomination would pay rent, and no other congregation

14518-685: Was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines. Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council . The street-cleaning contract had been the subject of competitive bidding, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $ 422,000, rather than the lowest at $ 100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder. While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it. His veto message said, "I regard it as

14640-399: Was successfully adopted. For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland began to gain a reputation beyond Erie County as a leader willing to purge government corruption. New York Democratic party officials started to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Daniel Manning , a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy. With

14762-486: Was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States , serving from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. He was the first Democrat to win the presidency after the Civil War . He was also the first president to serve nonconsecutive terms. Cleveland was elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881 and governor of New York in 1882. While governor, he closely cooperated with state assembly minority leader Theodore Roosevelt to pass reform measures, winning national attention. He led

14884-564: Was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply. Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland–Allison Act of 1878. Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he

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