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91-483: Idia first entered the royal household because Ozolua , the Oba from 1483 until 1514 saw her dance, and after the dance wanted to make Idia his wife. Idia and Oba Ozolua were married sometime before 1504, but historians are not positive about the exact date. As a result, Idia’s parents helped prepare her for her future life in the palace by giving her certain medical herbs . She was known to be very intelligent because she

182-853: A Benin Bronze head was sold to a private collector for a record fee of £10 million. In 2018, an agreement was made between the Benin Dialogue Group (BDG) and the government in London to return Benin Bronzes that will be used to form a temporary exhibition at the New Benin Royal Museum in Edo State . The group comprises representatives of several international museums, the Royal Court of Benin, Edo State Government and

273-612: A Queen Idia mask back from the British Museum . The imagined childhood of Queen Idia is the focus of an award-winning children's book titled Idia of the Benin Kingdom written by Ekiuwa Aire. The Brass Heads of Queen Idia are a group of four commemorative brass heads from medieval Benin that represents Idia, mother of Oba Esigie , made during the early sixteenth century at the Benin court. The four cast brass heads of

364-482: A complex process. It starts with a tree trunk or branch and is carved directly. The artist obtains the final form of the work from a block of wood. Since it was customary to use freshly cut wood in carvings, once the piece was finalized the surface was charred to prevent cracking during drying. This also allowed for polychromatic artworks, which were achieved using knife cuts and applications of natural pigments made with vegetable oil or palm oil . This type of grease, which

455-509: A future museum on, or near, his palace grounds. European journalists noted that the ″ Edo Museum of West African Art ″, for whose construction Germany had pledged 4 million Euros, would most likely remain empty. Swiss ethnologist Brigitta Hauser-Schäublin concluded that Germany's 2022 restitution policy was a fiasco. According to journalists, the German government returned the Benin bronzes to Nigeria under certain conditions which were ignored by

546-745: A group of commemorative heads from medieval Benin that represents Queen Idia, mother of Oba Esigie (r. 1504-1550), made during the early sixteenth century at the Benin court. The representations of Queen Idia discussed here include the Bronze Head of Queen Idia ( British Museum in London), a pendant ivory mask of Queen Idia ( Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York), and finally an ivory mask of Queen Idia ( British Museum in London). Several artistic representations of Idia were looted from Benin City during

637-647: A group of several thousand metal plaques and sculptures that decorated the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin , in what is now Edo State , Nigeria . The metal plaques were produced by the Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now located in Igun Street , also known as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, the objects form the best examples of Benin art and were created from the fourteenth century by artists of

728-641: A handover ceremony held on 28 October 2021. In April 2021, the German government declared the restitution of "looted" Benin bronzes in Germany's public collections by 2022. Hartmut Dorgerloh, the director of the Humboldt Forum , which incorporates the Ethnological Museum of Berlin , said at a press event that exhibiting the Benin bronzes in the new museum complex in Berlin as earlier planned

819-485: A key part of Benin's imperial courtly culture. Also, Idia was so influential because of her determination. Overall, Idia was described as a strong-willed, beautiful, intelligent, and wise woman. Esigie instituted the title of iyoba ( queen mother ) and conferred it on his mother, along with Eguae-Iyoba (Palace of the Queen Mother). Queen Idia became more popular when it was decided that her face should be used as

910-736: A large quantity of bronze wall plaques to the British Museum; these plaques illustrated the history of the Benin Kingdom in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The two largest collections of Benin Bronzes are located in the Ethnological Museum of Berlin and in the British Museum in London, while the third largest collection is located in several museums in Nigeria (principally the Nigerian National Museum in Lagos). Since gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria has sought

1001-407: A looted artefact. The statue had previously been removed from display in 2016, after student calls for the statue to be repatriated; following investigation by the college's Legacy of Slavery Working Party (LSWP), it was ascertained that the statue had been directly taken from the court of Benin, and had been gifted to the college by the father of a student in 1905. In February 2022, two Benin bronzes,

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1092-590: A more accurate description is the "Brass Heads" of Queen Idia. These brass heads are among the many Benin works of art that entered the European art market after the invasion of the British, an event known as the Benin Expedition of 1897 . The brass heads were made using the lost wax casting technique in the early sixteenth century. The image located at the British Museum is a realistic representation of

1183-468: A person's head was the receptacle of the supernatural guide for rational behavior. The head of an Oba was especially sacred, since the survival, security, and prosperity of all Edo citizens and their families, depended on his wisdom. In the annual festivals to reinforce the mystical power of the Oba, the king made ritual offerings in these sanctuaries, which were considered essential for the continuation of his reign. The stylistic variation of these bronze heads

1274-500: A restart of the Benin Bronze Age in the reign of the current Oba of Benin, Ewuare II . It therefore honours the Oba and was even offered in exchange for the bronzes held by the British Museum. In October 2021, Jesus College , Cambridge , announced that it would be repatriating a sculpture of a cockerel, known as Okukor , to Nigeria, on the 27 October, after the student body brought to light its historical significance as

1365-493: A sculpture to represent a Nigerian Festival FESTAC ‘77 , that was how the face of the Queen Mother came into art until the present date. She was supposed to be killed after the crowning of her son as the Oba, according to the then tradition but her son Esigie secretly took her to hide in a room that was to be entered by only those authorized to do so, he did this in order to protect her from being killed and it worked until he

1456-431: A small edge that is decorated with an incised guilloché pattern. In the other format, which is much narrower, the turned-back edges are missing and the design of the plaque background ends abruptly, as if cut off. These variations probably reflect the size and shape of the palace pillars and the arrangement of the plaques on them. The plaques are generally about 1 ⁄ 8 inch (3.2 mm) thick. The backgrounds on

1547-470: A vast sprawling agglomeration of buildings and courtyards, was the setting for hundreds of rectangular brass plaques whose relief images portray the persons and events that animated the court. Bronze and ivory objects had a variety of functions in the ritual and courtly life of the Kingdom of Benin. They were used principally to decorate the royal palace, which contained many bronze works. They were hung on

1638-547: A young woman from the Benin court, who wears a high pointed ukpe-okhue crown of lattice -shaped red coral beads. The hairstyle is referred to as a "parrot's beak" hairstyle and was only allowed to be worn by the Iyoba and the major war chief. Above and between the eyes are two bands that were inset with iron. These reflect the oral tale of how Idia came to be the Iyoba; the tale states that an oracle had told Idia to place medicine on two incisions above her eyes in order to prevent

1729-829: Is "now not imaginable". Also in April 2021, the Church of England promised to return two Benin bronzes that were given as gifts to the then Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie almost 40 years ago. These bronzes were meant to join the collection of the future Benin Royal Museum. In the same month, the Horniman Museum in South London said it was considering legal advice in terms of repatriation and restitution of 49 works from Benin City including 15 brass plaques, weapons and jewellery in its possession. In response to

1820-532: Is believed that two "Golden Ages" in Benin metal workmanship occurred during the reigns of Esigie ( fl. 1550) and of Eresoyen (1735–1750), when their workmanship achieved its highest quality. Most of the plaques and other objects were taken by British forces during the Benin Expedition of 1897 as the British Empire's control was being consolidated in Southern Nigeria . This expedition

1911-426: Is believed that two "Golden Ages" in Benin metal workmanship occurred during the reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) and of Eresoyen (1735–1750), when their workmanship achieved its highest quality. "The king's palace or court is a square, and is as large as the town of Haarlem and entirely surrounded by a special wall, like that which encircles the town. It is divided into many magnificent palaces, houses, and apartments of

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2002-486: Is located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art . These two ivory masks are almost identical to the each other, and both of these masks were made around the 16th century . The Benin ivory mask is about nine inches tall and five inches wide. Ivory masks were usually carved freehanded with a chisel and a file without a design to follow. Obas paid homage to the queen mothers by wearing carved ivory pendant masks of

2093-715: Is not to be confused as a response to repatriation requests, as the Institution owns a collection of about 160 Benin Bronzes. Instead, the museum describes this transfer as a return of plaques that were stolen from the National Museum in Lagos in the 1950s. In January 2022, the Great North Museum: Hancock in Newcastle , England, agreed to return a Benin Bronze stave to Nigeria. In March 2022,

2184-520: Is such an important characteristic of Beninese art that it constitutes the primary scientific basis for establishing a chronology. The leopard is a motif that occurs throughout many of the Benin Bronzes, because it is the animal which symbolizes the Oba. Another recurring motif is the royal triad: the Oba in the centre, flanked by two assistants, highlighting the support of those who the king trusted in order to govern. According to some sources,

2275-402: Is the residence and administrative headquarters in ancient and post-classical monarchies , and papal household for popes , and formed the basis for the general government of the country as well as providing for the needs of the sovereign and their relations. It was the core of the royal court , though this included many courtiers who were not directly employed by the monarch as part of

2366-620: The British Benin Expedition of 1897 and are now held in museums around the world. Alongside other Benin Bronzes , they have been the subject of calls for their repatriation. A Queen Idia ivory mask held in the British Museum became the symbol of the Second World Black and African Festival of Art and Culture FESTAC held in Nigeria in 1977. In Eddie Ugbomah 's 1979 film The Mask , the Nigerian hero steals

2457-460: The Edo people . The plaques, which in the Edo language are called Ama , depict scenes or represent themes in the history of the kingdom. Apart from the plaques, other sculptures in brass or bronze include portrait heads, jewellery, and smaller pieces. Some of the dramatic sculptures date to the fourteenth century, but the bulk of the collection dates to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It

2548-862: The Emperor and the Imperial Family as well as keeping the Privy Seal and Great Seal of Japan. The Agency is headed by a director-general, who is assisted by the Cabinet-appointed deputy director. The internal organisation of the Agency can be seen below. Auxiliary organs of the Agency include: Local branch office: The royal households of such of European monarchies have a continuous history since medieval times. Benin Bronzes The Benin Bronzes are

2639-550: The Iyoba to ward off bad spirits. The function of these ivory masks was to commemorate Iyoba Idia , and the piece was to appear at an altar dedicated to her. Also, Oba Esigie wore these masks during ceremonies . They were commissioned by Oba Esigie , her son. Historians are able to identify that it is indeed Queen Idia depicted in these masks because of the two parallel lines down her forehead between her eyebrows, represented here with two pieces of inlaid iron. Some have thought that

2730-671: The Smithsonian Institution announced that 39 bronzes would be repatriated. The bronzes are meant to be on display at the future National Museum of Benin City. The Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of African Art signed over ownership of 29 Benin bronzes to the Nigerian National Commission for Museums and Monuments in a formal ceremony on 11 October 2022, in Washington D.C., with Nigerian leaders and cultural officials in attendance; at

2821-503: The early modern period . The Kingdom of Benin was a hub of African civilization long before Portuguese traders visited, and bronzes were made in Benin prior to the arrival of the Portuguese. The Benin bronze sculpture tradition is thought to have derived from or been influenced by that of the older nearby Kingdom of Ife in southwest Nigeria. While the collection is known as the Benin Bronzes, like most West African " bronzes "

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2912-402: The 1960s, historians have increasingly understood the expedition to depose Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi (Overami) who had acceded to the throne in 1888, not as a retaliation, but to have been dictated by policy for a long time." Some consider that this creates an ambiguity surrounding the objects' ownership which has bearing on the possible modern return of the bronzes to Benin. The works taken by

3003-930: The Benin Bronzes in Western museums. They also tried to prevent the repatriating of Benin Bronzes by the Smithsonian Institution in October 2024. In November 2022, ARTnews magazine and other media reported that the Digital Benin online database had been created by a number of museums, including both experts from Nigeria ( National Museum Lagos and Benin City National Museum ) as well as from other African and Western institutions. Digital Benin lists 131 institutions from 20 countries with Benin cultural heritage in their collections. This new online platform allows visitors to learn about

3094-585: The Benin Expedition belong to the Royal Family in Benin City . Effective for objects that have been restituted and those to be restituted in the future. The Royal Family alone should be responsible for safekeeping and management. The bronzes were thereby turned into private property, to the exclusion of every other person and institution. Oba Ewuare II announced his plans to put them into

3185-419: The Benin artists may have been inspired by items brought during the arrival of the Portuguese, including European illuminated books, small ivory caskets with carved lids from India, and Indian miniature paintings. The quatrefoil "river leaves" might have originated from European or Islamic art, but by contrast, Babatunde Lawal cites examples of relief carving in southern Nigerian art to support his theory that

3276-458: The Benin culture, the Portuguese arrival from the seas with great amounts of wealth made them people of the spirit realm who came to bring wealth and power to the oba. This depiction shows the importance of the presence of the European soldiers. The white of the ivory represents purity and is associated with the god of the sea, Olokun . Olokun's wealth and fertility is the counterpart to the oba. Ivory became Benin's main commerce commodity following

3367-486: The British Museum's continued refusal to return looted Benin bronzes, the Iyase (traditional prime minister) of Benin Kingdom unveiled the largest bronze plaque to date on 30 July 2021. The plaque contains over 2 tons of brass and was created by one of the grandsons of the current Iyase of Benin Kingdom, Lukas Osarobo Zeickner-Okoro. It is titled 'The Return of Oba Ewuare' to symbolise the Benin belief in reincarnation and

3458-585: The British were a treasure hoard of bronze and ivory sculptures, including king heads, queen mother heads, leopard figurines, bells, and a great number of images sculpted in high relief , all of which were executed with a mastery of lost-wax casting. In 1910, German researcher Leo Frobenius carried out an expedition to Africa with the aim of collecting works of African art for museums in his country. Today perhaps as few as fifty pieces remain in Nigeria although approximately 2,400 pieces are held in European and American collections. The Benin Bronzes that were part of

3549-817: The German museums and the Nigerian government and some of the objects could remain in display in Germany under custody agreements. Hermann Parzinger , the head of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation , an authority that oversees many of Berlin's museums, said a “representative collection of objects” would remain in the German capital on a long-term loan. On 28 November 2022, the Horniman Museum in London held an official ceremony, unconditionally transferring ownership of its Benin Bronzes back to Nigeria. A few months later, on 23 March 2023, departing President Muhammadu Buhari declared by decree, that all restituted objects from

3640-513: The Nigerian National Commission for Museums and Monuments. In 2015, Mark Walker returned some Benin Bronzes that were taken by his grandfather during the siege on Benin Kingdom, and he was received by Prince Edun Akenzua in Benin City. The University of Aberdeen agreed in March 2021 to return a bronze head of an Oba, that had been purchased at an auction in 1957. The return was completed at

3731-470: The Nigerian government between 1950 and 1972. In 1950, the museum's curator Hermann Braunholtz declared that, although made individually, of the 203 plaques acquired by the Museum in 1898, 30 were duplicates; because they were identical representations, he determined that they were superfluous for the museum and were sold. The sales stopped in 1972 and the museum's African art specialist said that they regretted

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3822-721: The Nigerian president. In August 2022, an African-American slavery reparations activist group in the US, called the Restitution Study Group, petitioned against the United Kingdom's Charity Commission repatriating the Benin Bronzes to Nigeria. The group argued that in the country's history, African people had been complicit in selling captives into the Atlantic slave trade . Instead, the group suggested that descendants of enslaved Africans should have co-ownership over

3913-551: The Oba Ozolua from picking her for his wife. Oba Ozolua then went on to defeat the oracle's premonitions and Idia became the mother of Oba Esigie. When Oba Esigie commissioned these brass heads to be made and placed in Idia's memorial palace, he ensured that they had these incisions in order to honor how Idia came to be the first Iyoba of Benin. Above each eyebrow are engraved four cicatrices . The sophisticated technique and design of

4004-409: The Queen Mother's palace . The heads were designed to honor her military achievements and ceremonial power. The British Museum head was presented to the museum by Sir William Ingram in 1897. Idia's face is one of the most well-known faces of African royal women. There are two extant masks of Queen Idia that are made from ivory . One is located in the British Museum while the pendant ivory mask

4095-534: The River Niger to wrest control of Benin's northern territories. Esigie conquered the Igala, reestablishing the unity and military strength of the kingdom. His mother Idia received much of the credit for these victories as her political counsel, together with her magical powers and medicinal knowledge, were viewed as critical elements of Esigie's success on the battlefield. The representations of Queen Idia comprise

4186-493: The arrival of Portuguese traders who bought ivory in Benin. Also, along the crown of the mask there are the air-breathing mudfish, Clarias anguillaris , which lived on both land and in the sea, representing the duality of the oba's humanity and godhood. Overall, the crown represents both the human and the divine . The Benin ivory mask of Queen Idia illustrates Benin's culture and also represents Queen Idia's formidable character. These masks are also important as an illustration of

4277-485: The attack, the victors took the works of art decorating the Royal Palace and the residences of the nobility, which had been accumulated over many centuries. According to the official account of this event written by the British, the attack was warranted because the local people had ambushed a peaceful mission, and because the expedition liberated the population from a reign of terror. A 2020 book suggests that; "since

4368-565: The beginning of the nineteenth century, when colonization and missionary activity began, did larger numbers of African works begin to be taken to Europe, where they were described as simple curiosities of "pagan" cults. This attitude changed after the Benin Expedition of 1897. In 1897, the vice consul general James Robert Phillips , of the Niger Coast Protectorate , together with six other British officials, two businessmen, translators, and 215 porters, set off toward Benin from

4459-530: The booty of the punitive expedition of 1897 had different destinations: one portion ended up in the private collections of various British officials; the Foreign and Commonwealth Office sold a large number, which later ended up in various European museums, mainly in Germany, and in American museums. The high quality of the pieces was reflected in the high prices they fetched on the market. The Foreign Office gave

4550-628: The bust of a Head of an Oba and the bronze cockerel Okukor, that had been returned by the University of Aberdeen and Jesus College, Cambridge, were received at the royal palace in Benin City by the Oba of Benin, Ewuare II. In December 2022, the University of Cambridge legally transferred ownership of more than 100 Benin artefacts from its Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology to the National Commission of Museums and Monuments (NCMM) of Nigeria. A museum spokesperson declared that some of

4641-474: The city while rituals were being conducted; however, the travellers ignored the warning and continued on their expedition. They were ambushed at the south of the city by Oba warriors, and only two Europeans survived the ensuing massacre. News of the incident reached London eight days later and a naval punitive expedition was organized immediately, which was to be directed by Admiral Harry Rawson . British forces sacked and destroyed Benin City. Following

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4732-425: The courtiers, and comprises beautiful and long square galleries...resting on wooden pillars, from top to bottom covered with cast copper, on which are engraved the pictures of their war exploits and battles, and are kept very clean." Olfert Dapper , a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa (1668) The Kingdom of Benin , which occupied southern parts of present-day Nigeria between

4823-403: The divine physician in Benin. These medicinal potions were to assure that Oba Ozolua would stay away. This in the end did not work to repel Oba Ozolua: he sensed that something was wrong with Idia, but was quick enough to realize that she had been scarred and poisoned , so he was able to neutralize the medicine. The crown on both of the ivory masks of Idia displays Portuguese soldiers. To

4914-556: The expedition, two hundred pieces were taken to the British Museum in London, while the rest were taken to other European museums. A large number are held by the British Museum with other notable collections in Germany and the United States. Late 19th-century scholars O.M. Dalton and C.H. Read erroneously concluded that Benin knowledge of metallurgy came from the Portuguese traders , who were in contact with Benin in

5005-457: The four heads suggest that they were made in the early sixteenth century, commissioned by Idia's son Oba Esigie, and created by the imperial guild of brass-casters that was founded by the previous Oba, Oba Ogolua. Queen Idia played an instrumental role in her son's successful military campaigns against neighboring tribes and factions. After her death, Oba Esigie ordered dedicatory heads of the queen to be made, to be placed in front of altars or in

5096-573: The fourteenth and nineteenth centuries, was rich in sculptures of diverse materials, such as iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terra cotta. The Oba 's palace in Benin City , the site of production for the royal ancestral altars , also was the site for an elaborate court ceremonial life in which the Oba of Benin , his warriors, chiefs and titleholders, priests, members of the palace societies and their constituent guilds, foreign merchants and mercenaries, and numerous retainers and attendants all took part. The palace,

5187-414: The front of most of the plaques are incised with foliate patterns bearing one to four leaves, which is referred to as ebe-ame , or the "river leaf" design. The leaves were used in healing rites by priestesses of Olokun , the god of the sea. Some of the reliefs represent important battles of the sixteenth-century wars of expansion; however, the majority depict dignitaries wearing ceremonial dress. Most of

5278-421: The household, often by appointing them as valet de chambre or the local equivalent. Among many of these households there are certain great offices which have become, in course of time, merely hereditary . In most cases, as the name of the office would suggest, they were held by those who discharged personal functions about the sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary in each individual case,

5369-409: The household. There were often large numbers of employees in the household, strictly differentiated by rank, from nobles with highly sought-after positions that gave close access to the monarch, to all the usual servants such as cooks, footmen , and maids. The households typically included military forces providing security. Specialists such as artists, clock-makers and poets might be given a place in

5460-407: The king could own objects made of bronze and ivory, however, he could allow high-ranking individuals to use such items, such as hanging masks and cuffs made of bronze and ivory. Coral was also a royal material. Coral neck rings were a symbol of nobility and use was granted specifically by the Oba. The rectangular plaques exist in two formats. In one, the long vertical sides are turned back, creating

5551-451: The lack of information even extends to the functional roles of some figures, which cannot conclusively be determined. The bronze heads were reserved for ancestral altars. They were also used as a base for engraved elephant tusks, which were placed in openings in the heads. The commemorative heads of the king or the queen mother were not individual portraits, although they show a stylized naturalism. Instead, they are archetypical depictions;

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5642-585: The materials that were most difficult to obtain, such as gold, elephant tusks, and bronze. These kings made possible the creation of the splendid Benin bronzes; thus, the royal courts contributed substantially to the development of sub-Saharan art. In 1939, heads very similar to those of the Kingdom of Benin were discovered in Ife , the holy city of the Yoruba , which dated to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This discovery supported an earlier tradition holding that it

5733-583: The office alone survived, the duties either ceasing to be necessary or being transferred to officers of less exalted station. In the modern period , royal households have evolved into entities which are variously differentiated from national governments . Most modern households have become merely titular . In Japan, the Imperial Household Agency (宮内庁, Kunaichō) is the agency within the Government of Japan responsible for supporting

5824-399: The opportunity to experience their heritage. On 1 July 2022, Germany announced the immediate ownership transfer of 1,100 artefacts held by the Linden Museum in Stuttgart, Berlin's Humboldt Forum , the Cologne Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum , Hamburg's Museum am Rothenbaum and the State Ethnographic Collections of Saxony to Nigeria. The physical return of each item will be negotiated between

5915-424: The physical appearance and presence of Queen Idia. The only significant variation between the two masks is the differently designed collars: The Benin ivory mask has an intricate pattern as a collar, while the pendant ivory mask has the design of Portuguese soldiers. The Benin ivory mask is in better condition in comparison to the pendant ivory mask. Royal household A royal household or imperial household

6006-427: The pieces are mostly made of brass of variable composition. There are also pieces made of mixtures of bronze and brass, of wood, of ceramic, and of ivory, among other materials. The metal pieces were made using lost-wax casting and are considered among the best African sculptures made using this technique. Benin began to trade ivory, pepper, and slaves with the Portuguese in the late 15th century and incorporated

6097-409: The pieces were to remain in Cambridge “on extended loan” to ensure that “this west African civilisation continues to be represented in the museum's displays, and in teaching for school groups." In November 2021, the Metropolitan Museum of Art transferred two sixteenth-century Bronze plaques, a Warrior Chief and Junior Court Official to the National Commission for Museums and Monuments. This transfer

6188-509: The pillars of the palace by nails punched through them. As a courtly art, their principal objective was to glorify the Oba, the divine king, and the history of his imperial power or to honour the Iyoba of Benin (the queen mother). Art in the Kingdom of Benin took many forms, of which bronze and brass reliefs and the heads of kings and queen mothers are the best known. Bronze receptacles, bells, ornaments, jewellery, and ritual objects also possessed aesthetic qualities and originality, demonstrating

6279-411: The plaques are indigenous to Benin. British archaeologist and anthropologist Dan Hicks discussed the looting of the Benin Bronzes and their current presence within museums around the world. In his book he expressed the view that the looting of the Benin Bronzes are not an 'historical incident of reception' but an 'enduring brutality'. It was also noted that a total figure of looted artefacts from Benin

6370-489: The plaques portray static figures, either alone, in pairs, or in small groups arranged hierarchically around a central figure. Many of the figures depicted in the plaques may be identified only through their clothing and emblems, which indicated their rank and function in the court, but not their individual identities. Although there have been attempts to link some of the depictions with historical figures, these identifications have been speculative and unverified. In certain cases,

6461-456: The queen are known and are currently in the collections of the British Museum in London, the World Museum in Liverpool (accession number 27.11.99.8.), the Nigerian National Museum in Lagos, and the Ethnological Museum of Berlin . It is important to note that although these are commonly called "Bronze Heads" because the composition of metalwork from Benin were initially thought to be bronze , and were only later identified as brass ; therefore

6552-608: The return of the bronzes on several occasions. There has also been extensive debate over the location of the bronzes being distant from their place of origin. Often, their return has been considered emblematic of the repatriation of the African continent. The artefacts have become a test case in the international debate over restitution, comparable to that of the Elgin Marbles , and help change attitudes towards repatriation. The British Museum sold more than 30 Benin Bronzes to

6643-467: The sales. A newspaper publication revealed that in 1953, Sotheby's sold a Benin Bronze head for £5,500 when the previous record sale was £780. In 1968, Christies sold for £21,000 a Benin Head that was discovered by an officer around his neighbour's greenhouse. In 1984, Sotheby's auctioned a plaque depicting a musician; its value was estimated at between £25,000 and £35,000 in the auction catalogue. In 2015,

6734-601: The same time, the National Gallery of Art returned one Benin bronze. The US Supreme Court denied a petition to block the Smithsonian from returning the bronzes. The petition was filed by the Restitution Study Group, who argued the bronzes are linked to the descendants of enslaved people in America, because they were made with metal ignots traded for African slaves, and removing the bronzes would deny Americans

6825-431: The skills of their makers, although they are often eclipsed by figurative works in bronze and ivory carvings. In tropical Africa the technique of lost-wax casting was developed early, as the works from Benin show. When a king died, his successor would order that a bronze head be made of his predecessor. Approximately 170 of these sculptures exist, and the oldest date from the twelfth century. The Oba, or king, monopolized

6916-481: The small port of Sapele , Nigeria, The true intention of the visit is disputed. The delegation's stated aim was to negotiate with the Oba of Benin, while some historians contend that it was a reconnaissance mission disguised as a peaceful diplomatic delegation with the goal of ultimately overthrowing the king (Oba) of Benin . Although they had given word of their intended visit, they were later informed that their journey must be delayed, because no foreigner could enter

7007-570: The specifications, location and provenance of more than 5,000 African artifacts, including maps, high-resolution images, and the title of the works in English and Edo languages. The Benin Bronzes are more naturalistic than most African art of the period. The bronze surfaces are designed to highlight contrasts between light and metal. The features of many of the heads are exaggerated from natural proportions, with large ears, noses, and lips, which are shaped with great care. The most notable aspect of

7098-438: The style of their design changed over the centuries, which also occurred with the insignia of the depicted royalty. The elephant tusks with decorative carvings, which may have begun being used as a decorative element in the eighteenth century, show distinct scenes from the reign of a deceased king. As a prerequisite for royal succession, each new Oba had to install an altar in honor of his predecessor. According to popular belief,

7189-525: The thirteenth century. These Benin artisans refined that technique until they were able to cast plaques only an eighth-of-an-inch (3 mm) thick, surpassing the art as practiced by Renaissance masters in Europe. One sixteenth-century bronze, depicting the Oba with Europeans, was featured in A History of the World in 100 Objects , a series of radio programmes that started in 2010 as a collaboration between

7280-406: The throne. Although in the end, and against the odds, Esigie became the Oba. Ogidogbo , the first in line for the throne as Oba became illegitimate for the throne because he was crippled due to playing with his brothers, Arualan and Esigie. The people of Benin thought that Idia had planned this because Idia was known to possess magical powers . This also shows how the people of Benin thought that she

7371-477: The two parallel lines down Idia's face were thought to be where she held her magical powers; however, there is an alternate explanation for this. The two parallel lines down Queen Idia's face were caused by her parents because they did not want her to become Oba Ozolua's wife. They were advised in an oracle that they needed to scar her face to make her less beautiful so that Ozolua would not marry her. Also, her parents had medicinal potions placed within her scars by

7462-532: The use of manillas (brass ingots in the form of bracelets, bought from the Portuguese) as a metal source in their sculpture. The manillas' brass, previously suggested to come from The Netherlands, is now thought to come from the Rhineland region of Germany. Many of the dramatic sculptures date to the thirteenth century, and a large part of the collection dates to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It

7553-420: The works is the high level of metal working skill at lost-wax casting. The descendants of these artisans still revere Igue-Igha , as the person who introduced the art of casting to the Kingdom of Benin. Another important aspect of the works is their exclusivity: property was reserved only for certain social classes, reflecting the strict hierarchical structure of society in the Kingdom of Benin. In general, only

7644-556: Was able to both wreak and create havoc. This resulted in Arualan being next in line for the throne, but he saw Esigie as a threat. Consequently, Esigie wanted to assassinate his brother. Arualan saw Esigie as a threat because of his mother Idia. Although, the only reason Aruanran did not assassinate his brother was because he knew that Esigie’s mother, Idia, had the skill of magical arts , while Arualan did not. There have been many representations of Queen Idia because Queen Idia represented

7735-418: Was able to make changes to the tradition which canceled that law after that Queen Idia returned freely to the palace and ruled together with her son helping him fight spiritually and physically over his enemies which helped him during his reign as Oba. Before she died, she trained her son's wife in her ways so her departure would be met unnoticed. Subsequently, the neighboring Igala people sent warriors across

7826-399: Was able to retrieve the throne for her son, and she was also able to protect her son from his enemies such as Arhuahan (Esigie's step-brother ). Another interesting concept Idia was known for was her “ womb of orhue ”—a phrase that meant that her womb defied the odds. These odds were that her son, Esigie, was not first in line for the throne, rather Esigie was originally third in line for

7917-431: Was artists from Ife who had taught Benin the techniques of bronze metalworking. Recognition of the antiquity of the technology in Benin advanced when these sculptures were dated definitively to that era. Few examples of African art had been collected by Europeans prior to the nineteenth century, though European printed books already included images of Benin City and of the oba's palace from the early 1600s onward. Only at

8008-454: Was made near smoke from homes, allowed the wooden sculptures to acquire a patina that resembles rusty metal. The figures depicted in the bronzes were cast in relief with details incised in the wax model. Artists working in bronze were organized into a type of guild under royal decree and lived in a special area of the palace under the direct control of the Oba. The works made using lost-wax casting required great specialisation. Their quality

8099-513: Was positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys and a large number of their African bearers in January 1897. Some contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks , argue that the expedition was part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, framed as retaliatory or punitive, to further European imperialistic and economic interests in Africa. Following

8190-500: Was superior when the king was especially powerful, allowing him to employ a great number of specialists. Although the oldest examples of similar Benin metal work in bronze date from the twelfth century, according to tradition, the lost-wax casting technique was introduced to Benin by the son of the Oni, or sovereign of Ife . Their tradition holds that he taught the Benin metal workers the art of casting bronze using lost-wax techniques during

8281-713: Was up to 10,000 bronzes, ivories and other objects. Hicks notes that many of the looted Benin artefacts are in regional and university museums within the UK rather than the more well-known collections such as the British Museum , Royal Collection and the Victoria and Albert Museum . Although the works generally are called the Benin Bronzes, they are made of different materials. Some are made of brass, which analysis has shown to be an alloy of copper, zinc and lead in various proportions. Others are non-metallic, made of wood, ceramic, ivory, leather or cloth. The wooden objects are made in

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