The Toyota RAV4 EV is an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV produced by Toyota until 2014. Two generations of the EV model were sold in California, and to fleets elsewhere in the US, with a gap of almost ten years between them.
89-464: The first generation was leased from 1997 to 2003, and at the lessees' request, many units were sold after the vehicle was discontinued. A total of 1,484 were leased and/or sold in California to meet the state's mandate for zero-emissions vehicle . A small number were sold or leased in fleet sales in other states. As of mid-2012, there were almost 500 vehicles still in use in California. Production of
178-403: A helicopter . The fuel economy of an automobile relates to the distance traveled by a vehicle and the amount of fuel consumed . Consumption can be expressed in terms of the volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance traveled per unit volume of fuel consumed. Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a significant factor in air pollution, and since the importation of motor fuel can be
267-468: A 660 lb (299 kg) lithium-ion battery pack with a 50 kWh total capacity (37 kWh usable) and achieved a range of between 80 and 120 mi (130 and 190 km). The prototypes used components from the Tesla Roadster (first generation) . On July 15, 2011, Tesla entered into a supply and services agreement with Toyota for the supply of a validated electric powertrain system, including
356-566: A battery, charging system, inverter, motor, gearbox and associated software. The re-engineered RAV4 EV production version (Phase One vehicle) was unveiled at the May 2012 International Electric Vehicle Symposium in Los Angeles. Production models use the SAE J1772 charging standard. The battery pack, electronics and powertrain components in the production version are similar to those in used in
445-617: A car and the production, transmission and storage of electricity and hydrogen, the label "zero pollution" applies only to the car's conversion of stored energy into movement. In 2004, a consortium of major auto-makers — BMW , General Motors , Honda , Toyota and Volkswagen / Audi — came up with "Top Tier Detergent Gasoline Standard" to gasoline brands in the US and Canada that meet their minimum standards for detergent content and do not contain metallic additives. Top Tier gasoline contains higher levels of detergent additives in order to prevent
534-399: A change in buying habits with a propensity to heavier vehicles that are less fuel-efficient. Energy efficiency is similar to fuel efficiency but the input is usually in units of energy such as megajoules (MJ), kilowatt-hours (kW·h), kilocalories (kcal) or British thermal units (BTU). The inverse of "energy efficiency" is " energy intensity ", or the amount of input energy required for
623-436: A city equivalent of 87 mpg ‑US (2.7 L/100 km; 104 mpg ‑imp ), highway equivalent of 69 mpg ‑US (3.4 L/100 km; 83 mpg ‑imp ), and a combined equivalent of 78 mpg ‑US (3.0 L/100 km; 94 mpg ‑imp ). The RAV4 EV's battery system is a consumable item. Toyota reports that battery pack replacement costs are currently higher than
712-657: A conceptual bus which features exercise machines to the rear of the vehicle to generate kinetic energy used for propulsion. Due to the stop-start nature of idling in public transport, regenerative braking may be a possibility for public transport systems of the future. In an attempt to curb carbon emissions as well as noise pollution in South African cities , the South African Department of Science & Technology (DST), as well as other private investments, have made US$ 5 million available through
801-486: A diesel engine. See Brake-specific fuel consumption for more information. The energy efficiency in transport is the useful travelled distance , of passengers, goods or any type of load; divided by the total energy put into the transport propulsion means. The energy input might be rendered in several different types depending on the type of propulsion, and normally such energy is presented in liquid fuels , electrical energy or food energy . The energy efficiency
890-486: A gasoline price-per-gallon cost of US$ 3.80 and up and the non-EV 2003 RAV4 2-wheel-drive gasoline fuel efficiency of 27 mpg ‑US (8.7 L/100 km; 32 mpg ‑imp ), the RAV4 EV costs approximately 5 times less a per mile basis, and makes mileage in the RAV4 EV the cost equivalent to a 111.1 mpg ‑US (2.117 L/100 km; 133.4 mpg ‑imp ) small SUV. In addition,
979-548: A gear ratio of 9.73. The RAV4 EV weighs 4,030 lb (1,830 kg), 470 lb (210 kg) heavier than a front-wheel drive RAV4 Limited with the V-6 engine. The RAV 4 offers two drive modes: Normal and Sport. Peak power output of the motor is 115 kW (154 hp), with peak torque in normal mode of 296 N⋅m (220 ft⋅lb), and peak torque in sport mode of 370 N⋅m (270 ft⋅lb). Maximum vehicle speed in Normal mode
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#17327905051661068-469: A heat value of a fuel, it would be trivial to convert from fuel units (such as litres of gasoline) to energy units (such as MJ) and conversely. But there are two problems with comparisons made using energy units: The specific energy content of a fuel is the heat energy obtained when a certain quantity is burned (such as a gallon, litre, kilogram). It is sometimes called the heat of combustion . There exists two different values of specific heat energy for
1157-467: A large part of a nation's foreign trade , many countries impose requirements for fuel economy. Different methods are used to approximate the actual performance of the vehicle. The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses ( wind resistance , tire drag , and others) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air conditioning. Various strategies can be employed to reduce losses at each of
1246-436: A maximum power output of 129 kW. The RAV4 EV features a 10 kW onboard charger (SAE J1772 240 V, 40 A input). The battery pack is located below the floorpan, reducing the ground clearance as compared with the gasoline-powered version by a couple of inches, but the electric SUV's cargo space of 36.4 cubic feet (1.03 m) is the same as its gasoline sibling. The battery pack weighs 840 lb (380 kg) and because it
1335-502: A number of countries still using other systems, fuel economy is expressed in miles per gallon (mpg), for example in the US and usually also in the UK ( imperial gallon); there is sometimes confusion as the imperial gallon is 20% larger than the US gallon so that mpg values are not directly comparable. Traditionally, litres per mil were used in Norway and Sweden , but both have aligned to
1424-403: A series of hydrogen fueling stations has been established. Powered either through chemical reactions in a fuel cell that create electricity to drive very efficient electrical motors or by directly burning hydrogen in a combustion engine (near identically to a natural gas vehicle , and similarly compatible with both natural gas and gasoline); these vehicles promise to have near-zero pollution from
1513-662: A shift in corporate policy, the Toyota RAV4-EV was made available for sale to the general public. All 328 that Toyota made were sold. No one knows for certain what prompted Toyota to change their position on the RAV4-EV, since they had long since fulfilled their obligations under the MOA with the California Air Resources Board's zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate via its fleet lease program. The MSRP
1602-459: A small combustion engine is combined with electric motors. Kinetic energy which would otherwise be lost to heat during braking is recaptured as electrical power to improve fuel efficiency. The larger batteries in these vehicles power the car's electronics , allowing the engine to shut off and avoid prolonged idling . Fleet efficiency describes the average efficiency of a population of vehicles. Technological advances in efficiency may be offset by
1691-472: A unit of output such as MJ/passenger-km (of passenger transport), BTU/ton-mile or kJ/t-km (of freight transport), GJ/t (for production of steel and other materials), BTU/(kW·h) (for electricity generation), or litres/100 km (of vehicle travel). Litres per 100 km is also a measure of "energy intensity" where the input is measured by the amount of fuel and the output is measured by the distance travelled. For example: Fuel economy in automobiles . Given
1780-490: Is 85 mph (137 km/h), and maximum in Sport mode, which also has a more aggressive accelerator pedal feel, is 100 mph (160 km/h). The US Environmental Protection Agency rated the RAV4 EV combined economy at 76 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (44 kW⋅h/100 mi) , with 78 mpg‑e (43 kW⋅h/100 mi) in city driving and 74 mpg‑e (46 kW⋅h/100 mi) on highways. While
1869-404: Is a vehicle that does not emit exhaust gas or other pollutants from the onboard source of power. The California definition also adds that this includes under any and all possible operational modes and conditions. This is because under cold-start conditions for example, internal combustion engines tend to produce the maximum amount of pollutants. In a number of countries and states, transport
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#17327905051661958-572: Is a form of thermal efficiency , meaning the ratio of effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier ( fuel ) into kinetic energy or work . Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device, which in turn may vary per application, and this spectrum of variance is often illustrated as a continuous energy profile . Non-transportation applications, such as industry , benefit from increased fuel efficiency, especially fossil fuel power plants or industries dealing with combustion , such as ammonia production during
2047-517: Is a popular topic in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML). The main factors representing and influencing driving behavior include velocity, acceleration, gear, road parameters, weather, etc. Simple things such as keeping tires properly inflated, having a vehicle well-maintained and avoiding idling can dramatically improve fuel efficiency. Careful use of acceleration and deceleration and especially limiting use of high speeds helps efficiency. The use of multiple such techniques
2136-401: Is also occasionally known as energy intensity . The inverse of the energy efficiency in transport is the energy consumption in transport. Energy efficiency in transport is often described in terms of fuel consumption , fuel consumption being the reciprocal of fuel economy. Nonetheless, fuel consumption is linked with a means of propulsion which uses liquid fuels , whilst energy efficiency
2225-488: Is an aircraft powered by electric motors. Electricity may be supplied by a variety of methods including batteries, ground power cables, solar cells, ultracapacitors, fuel cells and power beaming. Between 2015 and 2016, Solar Impulse 2 completed a circumnavigation of the Earth using solar power. Japanese public transport is being driven in the direction of zero emissions due to growing environmental concern. Honda has launched
2314-548: Is applicable to any sort of propulsion. To avoid said confusion, and to be able to compare the energy efficiency in any type of vehicle, experts tend to measure the energy in the International System of Units , i.e., joules . Therefore, in the International System of Units, the energy efficiency in transport is measured in terms of metre per joule, or m/J, while the energy consumption in transport
2403-485: Is called " hypermiling ". The most efficient machines for converting energy to rotary motion are electric motors, as used in electric vehicles . However, electricity is not a primary energy source so the efficiency of the electricity production has also to be taken into account. Railway trains can be powered using electricity, delivered through an additional running rail, overhead catenary system or by on-board generators used in diesel-electric locomotives as common on
2492-466: Is cited as the main source of greenhouse gases (GHG) and other pollutants. The desire to reduce this is thus politically strong. Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ), hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board (CARB) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) definitions,
2581-400: Is dependent on many parameters of a vehicle, including its engine parameters, aerodynamic drag , weight, AC usage, fuel and rolling resistance . There have been advances in all areas of vehicle design in recent decades. Fuel efficiency of vehicles can also be improved by careful maintenance and driving habits. Hybrid vehicles use two or more power sources for propulsion. In many designs,
2670-414: Is located in the lowest part of the vehicle, the lower center of gravity provides a better handling than the conventional Toyota RAV4. The RAV4 EV has two charge modes: Standard and Extended. In standard mode, the high voltage battery charges only up to 35 kWh and Toyota expected the electric SUV to achieve an EPA driving range rating of 92 mi (148 km) for this charging mode. Extended mode allows
2759-443: Is measured in terms of joules per metre, or J/m. The more efficient the vehicle, the more metres it covers with one joule (more efficiency), or the fewer joules it uses to travel over one metre (less consumption). The energy efficiency in transport largely varies by means of transport. Different types of transport range from some hundred kilojoules per kilometre (kJ/km) for a bicycle to tens of megajoules per kilometre (MJ/km) for
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2848-533: Is not formed and complete combustion occurs., National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005. Experiments by NASA in microgravity reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidised after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behaved differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. LSP-1 experiment results , National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005. Premixed flames in microgravity burn at
2937-522: Is not needed, or it can be connected to the grid to use the excess electricity from the grid and produce electricity, e.g. at hydrogen pump stations. As a result, development of FCVs can be a big step toward sustainable development and reducing GHG emission in a long-term perspective. Other countries have a different definition of ZEV, noteworthy the more recent inclusion of greenhouse gases , as many European rules now regulate CO 2 emissions. CARB's role in regulating greenhouse gases began in 2004 based on
3026-499: Is possible at a substantially lower price, and that the lower purchase price would foster greater acceptance of electric vehicles. In fact, lithium-ion batteries soon displaced both nickel and lead from electromobiles. Initially, RAV4 EVs were only available for three-year fleet lease, not for sale and not for lease to the public, at a few dealerships beginning in 1997. From 2001, leases were made available to small "fleets of one" purportedly run by small businesses. In March 2002, due to
3115-558: Is usually in the range of 60% of the normal rate. In the use of charging the RAV4 EV, this equates to a cheaper cost-per-mile, roughly equivalent to a vehicle capable of 166.6 mpg ‑US (1.412 L/100 km; 200.1 mpg ‑imp ), based on a price of US$ 3.00 per gallon. The United States Environmental Protection Agency listed mileage ratings for the RAV4 EV in its yearly Fuel Economy Guide from 2000 through 2003. The 2003 model recorded fuel efficiency of 39 kW·h/100 mi city, 49 kW·h/100 mi highway;
3204-434: Is very low. This was reflected in a study by AEA Technology between a Eurostar train and airline journeys between London and Paris, which showed the trains on average emitting 10 times less CO 2 , per passenger, than planes, helped in part by French nuclear generation. In the future, hydrogen cars may be commercially available. Toyota is test-marketing vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells in southern California, where
3293-531: The Haber process . In the context of transport , fuel economy is the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle, given as a ratio of distance traveled per unit of fuel consumed. It is dependent on several factors including engine efficiency , transmission design, and tire design. In most countries, using the metric system , fuel economy is stated as "fuel consumption" in liters per 100 kilometers (L/100 km) or kilometers per liter (km/L or kmpl). In
3382-694: The Innovation Fund for the development of the Joule. The Joule is a five-seater car, planned to be released in 2014. However the company ceased trading in 2012. Several cities have implemented low-emission zones . Launched in 2019 and set to expand in 2023, the implementation of London's Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) incentivizes and accelerates the widespread adoption of cleaner vehicles through setting daily charge rates for driving vehicles that are non-compliant with ULEZ emission standards. Fuel efficiency Fuel efficiency (or fuel economy )
3471-549: The Magne Charge connector, a inductive charging paddle produced by General Motors subsidiary Delco Electronics also used on other electric vehicles of the time including the EV1 and Chevy S10 EV . The inlet was mounted on the front grille of the vehicle. When using a 6 kW charging unit on a 240-volt, 30-amp circuit, the RAV4 EV's batteries can be recharged from being fully depleted to fully charged in about five hours,
3560-571: The Monroney label to show the combined range of 103 mi (166 km). Charging time with a 40 A/240 V charging station is 5 hours in Standard Mode and 6 hours for Extended Mode; the onboard charger delivers 9.6 kW. Toyota had arranged with Leviton to offer a custom level 2 charging station priced at US$ 1,590 including basic installation. On the other end of the scale, and due to its large battery pack, charging at 120 volts with
3649-532: The Tesla Model S sedan launched in June 2012. The second generation RAV4 EV combines an electric powertrain from Tesla and a battery produced by Panasonic in a chassis built by Toyota. The electric motor supplied by Tesla is an AC induction motor , a departure from Toyota's practice of using synchronous permanent-magnet motors in their hybrid electric vehicles . A fixed-gear open-differential transaxle has
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3738-405: The health of residents can be severely affected. However, the production of the fuels that power ZEVs, such as the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels , may produce more emissions per mile than the emissions produced from a conventional fossil fueled vehicle. A well-to-wheel life cycle assessment is necessary to understand the emissions implications associated with operating a ZEV. In
3827-399: The latent heat of vaporization of water. The difference between the high and low values is significant, about 8 or 9%. This accounts for most of the apparent discrepancy in the heat value of gasoline. In the U.S. (and the table) the high heat values have traditionally been used, but in many other countries, the low heat values are commonly used. Neither the gross heat of combustion nor
3916-569: The 2002 Pavley Act (AB 1493) , but was blocked by lawsuits and by the EPA in 2007, by rejecting the required waiver. Additional responsibilities were granted to CARB by California's Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32), which includes the mandate to set low-carbon fuel standards . As a result of an investigation into false advertising regarding "zero-emissions" claims, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in
4005-457: The EU standard of L/100 km. Fuel consumption is a more accurate measure of a vehicle's performance because it is a linear relationship while fuel economy leads to distortions in efficiency improvements. Weight-specific efficiency (efficiency per unit weight) may be stated for freight , and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle efficiency per passenger) for passenger vehicles. Fuel efficiency
4094-409: The RAV4 EV has a charge timer built into the dashboard that enables the vehicle to start charging at a specific time. As the RAV4 EV easily becomes the main cost of electricity in an average-sized home, this enables the owner to use a Time-Of-Day Meter to reduce electricity costs. This configuration is a standard practice with RAV4 EV owners. The price of electricity at night depends on the carrier, but
4183-585: The U.S. through April 2015. The production run ended in September 2014. The first prototype was built in just three weeks after the signing of a joint development agreement where Toyota helped the then fledgling electric automaker Tesla start production in the NUMMI factory Toyota was vacating in Fremont, California. Toyota's partner Panasonic was also involved in the development, just as when Toyota developed
4272-513: The UK ruled in March 2010 to ban an advertisement from Renault UK regarding its "zero-emission vehicles" because the ad breached CAP (Broadcast) TV Code rules 5.1.1, 5.1.2 (Misleading advertising) and 5.2.1 (Misleading advertising- Evidence) and 5.2.6 (Misleading advertising-Environmental claims.) Greenhouse gases and other pollutant emissions are generated by vehicle manufacturing processes. The emissions from manufacturing are many factors larger than
4361-525: The US and UK rail networks. Pollution produced from centralised generation of electricity is emitted at a distant power station, rather than "on site". Pollution can be reduced by using more railway electrification and low carbon power for electricity. Some railways, such as the French SNCF and Swiss federal railways derive most, if not 100% of their power, from hydroelectric or nuclear power stations, therefore atmospheric pollution from their rail networks
4450-562: The United States in September 2012. The US Environmental Protection Agency rated the second generation RAV4 EV with a range of 103 mi (166 km) and a combined fuel economy rating of 76 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (3.1 L/100 km). The first fleet version of the RAV4 EV became available on a limited basis in 1997. In 2001 it was possible for businesses, cities or utilities to lease one or two of these cars. Toyota then actually sold or leased 328 RAV4 EVs to
4539-465: The amount of generated electricity compared to fossil fuel power plants; most renewable energy sources are intermittent energy sources . Therefore, development of these resources will lead to excess energy which can be better used by development of EVs. Moreover, most EVs can benefit from regenerative brakes and other optimization systems which increases the energy efficiency in these vehicles. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) can help even more in terms of
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#17327905051664628-550: The average American car. Operating on two lithium-ion batteries, the Segway PT produces zero emissions during operation, and utilizes a negligible amount of electricity while charging via a standard wall outlet. Wind-powered land vehicles operating on wind exist (using wind turbines and kites ). For boats and other watercraft , regular and special sails (as rotorsails , wing sails , turbo sails , skysails ) exist that can propel them without emissions. An electric aircraft
4717-463: The batteries). Its EPA rated driving range is 95 miles (153 km) with an EPA combined fuel economy rating of 43 kW·h/100 mi (equivalent to 78 MPGe ). Actual fuel economy and range depends on the same factors as a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle including rolling resistance and average speed ( aerodynamic drag ). The RAV4 EV battery pack uses 24 12-volt, 95Ah NiMH batteries capable of storing 27 kWh of energy. Production vehicles use
4806-460: The battery to charge to its full usable capacity of 41.8 kWh, providing an expected EPA driving range of 113 mi (182 km) according to Toyota estimates. The EPA rated just one range of 103 mi (166 km). Standard mode is designed to optimize battery life over range; however, the 8-year, 100,000-mile battery warranty cover the packs regardless of the mix of charge modes over the pack's life. However, due to EPA's procedures, Toyota expects
4895-422: The build-up of deposits (typically, on fuel injector and intake valve ) known to reduce fuel economy and engine performance. How fuel combusts affects how much energy is produced. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has investigated fuel consumption in microgravity . The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection , because soot tends to rise to
4984-470: The choice was made to manufacture only the NiMH version. Many electric vehicle advocates claimed that automaker's choice of the NiMH battery worked against the 1990s deployment of cost-effective electric vehicles based on PbA batteries, and that further development of lead–acid technology could result in performance equal to NiMH, but at a substantially lower price. Their argument was that a usable electric vehicle
5073-409: The city mileage rating was equivalent to 125 mpg ‑US (1.88 L/100 km; 150 mpg ‑imp ), and 100 mpg ‑US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg ‑imp ) on the highway. The EPA rated combined mileage was 112 mpg ‑US (2.10 L/100 km; 135 mpg ‑imp ). In 2007, the EPA updated its rating system and revised the ratings to
5162-495: The conversions between the chemical energy in the fuel and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy; maneuvers such as sudden acceleration and heavy braking waste energy. Energy-efficient driving techniques are used by drivers who wish to reduce their fuel consumption, and thus maximize fuel efficiency. Many drivers have the potential to improve their fuel efficiency significantly. The relationship between fuel consumption and driving behavior
5251-631: The cord that comes standard under the rear deck takes 44 hours for Standard Mode and 52 hours for Extended Mode. An aftermarket company called Quick Charge Power has come up with a way to add 48 kW CHAdeMO DC Quick Charging to the RAV4ev which dramatically shortens charge times for the 41.8 kWh battery. This can make the car tremendously more useful in areas where this charging infrastructure exists. The RAV4 EV began assembly in 2012 at Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada in Woodstock, Ontario alongside
5340-485: The current energy mixes in other countries, it has been predicted that such emissions would decrease by 40% in the U.K. and 19% in China . Apart from animal-powered and human-powered vehicles , battery electric vehicles (which include cars , aircraft and boats) also do not emit any of the above pollutants, nor any CO 2 gases during use. This is a particularly important quality in densely populated areas, where
5429-410: The development of sustainable energy sources because these cars use hydrogen as their fuel. Compressed hydrogen can be used as an energy storage element, while electricity must be stored in batteries. The hydrogen can be produced by electricity through electrolysis , and this electricity can come from green sources. Hydrogen can be produced in situ, e.g. excess at wind farm when the generated electricity
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#17327905051665518-401: The emissions from tailpipes, even in gasoline engine vehicles. Most reports on ZEVs' impact to the climate do not take into account these manufacturing emissions, though over the lifetime of the car the emissions from manufacturing are relatively small. Considering the current U.S. energy mix , a ZEV would produce an average 58% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions per mile driven. Given
5607-498: The engine manifold. The power steering use an electric motor instead of mechanical energy delivered by fan belts. The passenger compartment is heated and cooled electrically using a heat pump (the first fleet application of a heat pump in a road vehicle) with supplemental electrical resistance heating as backup. The RAV4 EV production has a governed top speed of 137 km/h (85 mph), a tested 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) time of around 18 seconds (depending on state-of-charge on
5696-513: The ever-increasing use of renewable energy throughout the supply-chains. The term zero-emissions or ZEV, as originally coined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), refers only to motor vehicle emissions from the onboard source of power. Therefore, CARB's definition is accounting only for pollutants emitted at the point of the vehicle operation, and the clean air benefits are usually local because depending on
5785-585: The fact that the last few dozen vehicles had to be assembled from spare parts due to a shortfall of production components (a significantly more expensive way of building a vehicle). This unexpected development caused deliveries to trickle on into September 2003. It also caused variations in the vehicles such as heated seats, retractable antennae, mats, etc. The last of the 328 EVs was sold in November 2002. A total of 1,484 were leased and/or sold in California. Whether or not Toyota wanted to continue production, it
5874-629: The first generation of the RAV4 EV. The electric SUV was developed by Tesla and Toyota Technical Center U.S.A. in Michigan. Testing began in July 2010. A demonstrator was unveiled at the November 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show . Toyota built 35 of these converted RAV4s (Phase Zero vehicles) for a demonstration and evaluation program that ran through 2011. The lithium metal-oxide battery and other power train components were supplied by Tesla. These prototypes had
5963-564: The general public in 2003, at which time the program was terminated despite waiting lists of prospective customers. The RAV4 EV closely resembles the regular internal combustion engine (ICE) version - without a tailpipe - and has a governed top speed of 78 mph (126 km/h) with an EPA rated range of 95 mi (153 km). The 95 amp-hour nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) has a capacity of 27.4 kWh , charges inductively and has proven to be very durable. Some RAV4 EVs have been driven more than 150,000 miles (240,000 km) using
6052-615: The location where the electricity is generated (if the electricity comes from coal or natural gas power plants—as opposed to hydro-electric, wind power , solar power or nuclear power plants); and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which may shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated. It does not include hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles because these do generate some emissions (although being near-emissionless ). It also does not include vehicles running on 100% biofuel as these also emit exhaust gases, despite being carbon neutral overall. Emissions from
6141-472: The manufacturing process are thus not included in this definition, and it has been argued that the emissions that are created during manufacture are currently of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the emissions that are created during a vehicle's operating lifetime. However, these vehicles are in the early stages of their development; the manufacturing emissions may decrease by the development of technology, industry, shifting toward mass production and
6230-527: The mid-19th century, bicycle ownership became common (during the bike boom )—predating mass car ownership. In the 1960s, the Flying Pigeon bicycle became the single most popular mechanized vehicle on the planet. Some 210 million electric bikes are on the road in China. Segway Personal Transporters are two-wheeled, self-balancing, battery-powered machines that are eleven times more energy-efficient than
6319-605: The more costly and advanced NiMH batteries, and the NiMH RAV4 EV prototype received better reviews, due to its increased range. Its energy efficiency , however, was not as good as the PbA version. Due to the impracticality of developing two battery types for a limited volume program, Toyota opted for the higher-performance, higher-cost NiMH RAV4 EV. This resulted in a greater manufacturing cost, and higher purchase price. A number of electric vehicle advocates voiced disappointment that
6408-473: The most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several toxic airborne compounds (such as 1,3-Butadiene ), and pollutants of global significance such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero-emission vehicle with different power sources can include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles , electric bicycles , and gravity racers . Also other battery electric vehicles , which may shift emissions to
6497-488: The net heat of combustion gives the theoretical amount of mechanical energy (work) that can be obtained from the reaction. (This is given by the change in Gibbs free energy , and is around 45.7 MJ/kg for gasoline.) The actual amount of mechanical work obtained from fuel (the inverse of the specific fuel consumption ) depends on the engine. A figure of 17.6 MJ/kg is possible with a gasoline engine, and 19.1 MJ/kg for
6586-490: The original battery pack. It was also one of the few vehicles with a single speed gearbox when introduced to the market. Beyond the unusual power train (batteries, controller and motor), the remaining systems in the RAV4 EV are comparable to the gasoline-powered RAV4. The power brakes , power steering , tire wear and suspension components are similar except that they use electric power sources. The power brakes use an electric pump to provide vacuum instead of deriving vacuum from
6675-452: The process monitored by a passive battery balancing system. Some RAV4 EV prototypes were charged via a front fender mounted conductive charger coupling made by Yazaki Corporation. Charging a RAV4 EV from full-dead to full-charge uses approximately 30 kW·h of electricity; the excess above the battery pack capacity is used by the charging system. At a rate of US$ 0.09 per kilowatt-hour, this costs around US$ 2.70 . As of May 2008, based on
6764-532: The quarter mile time is not officially rated from Toyota, the RAV4 EV (FWD) Facebook community has posted dragslip results of 15.71s at 85.5 mph (137.6 km/h). This is only marginally slower than the RAV4 V6 AWD (with 269HP) which has published quarter mile times of 14.8-14.9 at 93 mph (150 km/h). The battery pack is a 386 V lithium-ion battery pack comprising about 4,500 cells and rated at 41.8 kW·h of usable energy at full charge, with
6853-715: The regular gasoline version. Tesla built the electric powertrain at its plant at Toyota's old NUMMI facility, now the Tesla Fremont Factory , in Fremont, California , and then shipped them to Canada. About 2,500 RAV4 EV vehicles were built between 2012 and 2014. The battery supply deal between Toyota and Tesla concluded with the end of production in August 2014. In 2017, Toyota sold all its shares in Tesla. Zero-emissions vehicle A zero-emission vehicle ( ZEV )
6942-426: The same batch of fuel. One is the high (or gross) heat of combustion and the other is the low (or net) heat of combustion. The high value is obtained when, after the combustion, the water in the exhaust is in liquid form. For the low value, the exhaust has all the water in vapor form (steam). Since water vapor gives up heat energy when it changes from vapor to liquid, the liquid water value is larger since it includes
7031-402: The second generation EV was limited to 2,600 units during a three-year run, with sales limited to California beginning in 2012. Production ended in September 2014. A total of 2,489 units of the second generation model were sold in California through April 2015. Toyota worked together with Tesla Motors and Panasonic to develop the second generation RAV4 EV, and the electric SUV was released in
7120-626: The smaller, shorter, two-door version of the RAV4. The prototypes included some versions fitted with Panasonic NiMH batteries, and others with high-performance Panasonic lead–acid PbA batteries (the same ones that eventually found their way into the EV1 and other production GM electric vehicles). The RAV4 EV prototypes also were equipped with on-board level 2 chargers and connected via a front fender conductive charger coupling made by Yazaki Corporation. Both prototypes were well accepted. The utility employee evaluators did not have to personally pay for
7209-545: The source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the electricity generation plants. In a broader perspective, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind , solar , hydroelectric , or nuclear power for ZEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. In other words, if ZEVs are recharged from electricity generated by fossil fuel plants, they cannot be considered as zero emissions. However,
7298-526: The spread of electrical-powered vehicles can help the development of systems for charging the EV batteries from excess electricity which cannot be used otherwise. For instance, electricity demand is lowest at night and the excess generated electricity at this time can be used for recharging the EVs' batteries. It's worth mentioning that renewable sources such as wind turbines or solar panels are less controllable in terms of
7387-408: The tailpipe (exhaust pipe). Potentially the atmospheric pollution could be minimal, provided the hydrogen is made by electrolysis using electricity from non-polluting sources such as solar, wind or hydroelectricity or nuclear. Commercial hydrogen production uses fossil fuels and produces more carbon dioxide than hydrogen. Because there are pollutants involved in the manufacture and destruction of
7476-435: The top of a flame, such as in a candle, making the flame yellow. In microgravity or zero gravity , such as an environment in outer space , convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical , with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient. There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely one given is the hypothesis that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot
7565-465: The value of the used vehicle. Toyota tested the RAV4 EV in Japan for 300,000 miles (480,000 km) over two years before introducing the vehicle in the United States. The economies of scale are affecting the replacement cost of the RAV4 EV. RAV4 EV pre-production prototypes were first released in a confidential evaluation program with electric utilities throughout the U.S. These prototypes were based on
7654-501: Was US$ 42,000 ; but in California, ZIP-grant rebates of US$ 9,000 , decreasing in 2003 to US$ 5,000 , and a US$ 4,000 credit from the Internal Revenue Service brought the price down to a more palatable US$ 29,000 ( US$ 33,000 for some 2003 deliveries), including the home charger. More RAV4-EVs were sold than had been planned for manufacture through standard assembly line techniques. Toyota filled every order despite
7743-561: Was settled in the ICC International Court of Arbitration , and not publicized due to a gag order placed on Toyota. Only smaller NiMH batteries , incapable of powering an electric vehicle or plugging in, were allowed by Chevron-Texaco. The second generation RAV4 EV was released in September 2012 starting at a price of US$ 49,800 before any government incentives. Toyota also offered a 36-month lease option at US$ 599 per month with down payment of US$ 3,499 . The RAV4 EV
7832-596: Was sold only in California, and sales began in the San Francisco Bay Area , Los Angeles / Orange County and San Diego . Production was limited to 2,600 during three years. The RAV4 EV was available to individual consumers and fleet customers. Due to the capacity of its battery pack the RAV4 EV qualified for the maximum US$ 7,500 federal tax credit and also was eligible for a US$ 2,500 rebate in California . A total of 192 units were sold during 2012 and 1,096 during 2013. A total of 2,489 units were sold in
7921-436: Was unlikely to be able to do so because the battery was no longer available. Chevron had inherited control of the worldwide patent rights for the NiMH battery when it merged with Texaco, which had purchased them from General Motors. Chevron's unit won a US$ 30,000,000 settlement from Toyota and Panasonic, the manufacturer of the battery, and the production line for the large NiMH batteries was closed down and dismantled. This case
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