58-520: The Canon of Kings was a dated list of kings used by ancient astronomers as a convenient means to date astronomical phenomena, such as eclipses . For a period, the Canon was preserved by the astronomer Claudius Ptolemy , and is thus known sometimes as Ptolemy's Canon . It is one of the most important bases for our knowledge of ancient chronology . The Canon derives originally from Babylonian sources. Thus, it lists Kings of Babylon from 747 BC until
116-541: A flight simulator , sailing simulator , or driving simulator . Continuous simulation is a simulation based on continuous-time rather than discrete-time steps, using numerical integration of differential equations . Discrete-event simulation studies systems whose states change their values only at discrete times. For example, a simulation of an epidemic could change the number of infected people at time instants when susceptible individuals get infected or when infected individuals recover. Stochastic simulation
174-519: A microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to the target machine. Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at will. Simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees , or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values. In
232-401: A "safe" virtual environment yet living a lifelike experience (or at least it is the goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system. Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The term 'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept rather than simulating
290-562: A National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook, Jackie, 2004), "a health care provider's ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of the most critical factors in creating a positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital emergency room." Eder-Van Hook (2004) also noted that medical errors kill up to 98,000 with an estimated cost between $ 37 and $ 50 million and $ 17 to $ 29 billion for preventable adverse events dollars per year. Simulation
348-495: A computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy. Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life-size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to
406-405: A few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the highly ambitious people who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries, create astrophotographs , and assist professional astronomers in research. Simulation A simulation
464-438: A few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs, including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums , as a public service to encourage interest in
522-472: A great deal of promise for virtual simulations. Systems such as brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) offer the ability to further increase the level of immersion for virtual simulation users. Lee, Keinrath, Scherer, Bischof, Pfurtscheller proved that naïve subjects could be trained to use a BCI to navigate a virtual apartment with relative ease. Using the BCI, the authors found that subjects were able to freely navigate
580-503: A realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real-world environment in a simplistic way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key concepts. Normally, a user can create some sort of construction within the microworld that will behave in a way consistent with the concepts being modeled. Seymour Papert was one of the first to advocate the value of microworlds, and the Logo programming environment developed by Papert
638-404: A simulator—although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different meaning of simulator —is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in trials of drug efficacy. Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and even death due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training. According to Building
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#1732765137622696-738: A system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy , astrobiology , stellar astronomy , astrometry , galactic astronomy , extragalactic astronomy , or physical cosmology . Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy , neutrino astronomy , x-ray astronomy , and gravitational-wave astronomy . Historically , astronomy
754-431: A type of simulator, typically called an emulator , is often used to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly designed computer that has not yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available), or in a tightly controlled testing environment (see Computer architecture simulator and Platform virtualization ). For example, simulators have been used to debug
812-440: Is a simulation where some variable or process is subject to random variations and is projected using Monte Carlo techniques using pseudo-random numbers. Thus replicated runs with the same boundary conditions will each produce different results within a specific confidence band. Deterministic simulation is a simulation which is not stochastic: thus the variables are regulated by deterministic algorithms. So replicated runs from
870-464: Is also good evidence that procedural simulation improves actual operational performance in clinical settings." However, there is a need to have improved evidence to show that crew resource management training through simulation. One of the largest challenges is showing that team simulation improves team operational performance at the bedside. Although evidence that simulation-based training actually improves patient outcome has been slow to accrue, today
928-510: Is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist. Key issues in modeling and simulation include
986-409: Is an imitative representation of a process or system that could exist in the real world. In this broad sense, simulation can often be used interchangeably with model . Sometimes a clear distinction between the two terms is made, in which simulations require the use of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the simulation represents
1044-404: Is being used to study patient safety, as well as train medical professionals. Studying patient safety and safety interventions in healthcare is challenging, because there is a lack of experimental control (i.e., patient complexity, system/process variances) to see if an intervention made a meaningful difference (Groves & Manges, 2017). An example of innovative simulation to study patient safety
1102-428: Is from nursing research. Groves et al. (2016) used a high-fidelity simulation to examine nursing safety-oriented behaviors during times such as change-of-shift report . However, the value of simulation interventions to translating to clinical practice are is still debatable. As Nishisaki states, "there is good evidence that simulation training improves provider and team self-efficacy and competence on manikins. There
1160-425: Is generally considered by historians to be accurate, and forms part of the backbone of the commonly accepted chronology from 747 BC forward that all other datings are synchronized to. It is not, however, the ultimate source for this chronology; most of the names and lengths of reigns can be independently verified from archaeological material (coinage, annals, inscriptions in stone etc.) and extant works of history from
1218-501: Is listed in any year with multiple monarchs. Usually, the overlapping year is assigned to the monarch who died in that year, but not always. Note that the two periods in the Babylonian section where no king is listed the first represents two pretenders whose legitimacy the compiler did not recognize, and the second extends from the year Babylon was sacked by Sennacherib , King of Assyria to the restoration of Esarhaddon . The Canon
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#17327651376221276-568: Is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are many different types of computer simulation, the common feature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states would be prohibitive or impossible. Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling (e.g. Monte Carlo simulation, stochastic modeling, multimethod modeling) that makes all
1334-495: Is one of the most well-known microworlds. Project management simulation is increasingly used to train students and professionals in the art and science of project management. Using simulation for project management training improves learning retention and enhances the learning process. Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political processes in anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at
1392-438: Is one which uses more than one computer simultaneously, to guarantee access from/to different resources (e.g. multi-users operating different systems, or distributed data sets); a classical example is Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS). Parallel simulation speeds up a simulation's execution by concurrently distributing its workload over multiple processors, as in high-performance computing . Interoperable simulation
1450-466: Is patient care to deliver just-in-time service or/and just-in-place. This training consists of 20 minutes of simulated training just before workers report to shift. One study found that just in time training improved the transition to the bedside. The conclusion as reported in Nishisaki (2008) work, was that the simulation training improved resident participation in real cases; but did not sacrifice
1508-523: Is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation and how closely it imitates the real-life counterpart. Fidelity is broadly classified as one of three categories: low, medium, and high. Specific descriptions of fidelity levels are subject to interpretation, but the following generalizations can be made: A synthetic environment is a computer simulation that can be included in human-in-the-loop simulations. Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to identify
1566-473: Is where multiple models, simulators (often defined as federates) interoperate locally, distributed over a network; a classical example is High-Level Architecture . Modeling and simulation as a service is where simulation is accessed as a service over the web. Modeling, interoperable simulation and serious games is where serious game approaches (e.g. game engines and engagement methods) are integrated with interoperable simulation. Simulation fidelity
1624-476: The ancient Egyptian year of 365 days. This has two consequences. The first is that the dates for when monarchs began and ended their reigns are simplified to the beginning and the ending of the ancient Egyptian year, which moves one day every four years against the Julian calendar . The second is that this list of monarchs is simplified. Monarchs who reigned for less than one year are not listed, and only one monarch
1682-568: The origin or evolution of stars , or the formation of galaxies . A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology , which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical . Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for
1740-545: The PhD level and beyond (as of 2024). Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes, usually just
1798-415: The ability of simulation to provide hands-on experience that translates to the operating room is no longer in doubt. One of the largest factors that might impact the ability to have training impact the work of practitioners at the bedside is the ability to empower frontline staff (Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015). Another example of an attempt to improve patient safety through the use of simulations training
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1856-461: The acquisition of valid sources of information about the relevant selection of key characteristics and behaviors used to build the model, the use of simplifying approximations and assumptions within the model, and fidelity and validity of the simulation outcomes. Procedures and protocols for model verification and validation are an ongoing field of academic study, refinement, research and development in simulations technology or practice, particularly in
1914-410: The behaviour of the system under study. Computer simulation has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems in physics , chemistry and biology , and human systems in economics and social science (e.g., computational sociology ) as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in
1972-407: The cause of equipment failure. This can be the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause. A computer simulation (or "sim") is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works. By changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to virtually investigate
2030-761: The conquest of Babylon by Achaemenid Persians in 539 BC, and then Persian kings from 538 to 332 BC. At this point, the Canon was continued by Greek astronomers in Alexandria , and lists the Macedonian kings from 331 to 305 BC, the Ptolemies from 304 BC to 30 BC, and the Roman and Byzantine Emperors , although they are not kings; in some manuscripts the list is continued down to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Canon only increments by whole years, specifically
2088-421: The core sciences, a competency examination, experience with teaching undergraduates and participating in outreach programs, work on research projects under the student's supervising professor, completion of a PhD thesis , and passing a final oral exam . Throughout the PhD training, a successful student is financially supported with a stipend . While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers,
2146-457: The evolution of the model over time. Another way to distinguish between the terms is to define simulation as experimentation with the help of a model. This definition includes time-independent simulations. Often, computers are used to execute the simulation . Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance tuning or optimizing, safety engineering , testing, training, education, and video games. Simulation
2204-474: The field is popular among amateurs . Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties . The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. As with any hobby , most people who practice amateur astronomy may devote
2262-438: The field of network traffic simulation . In such simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a mathematical model , which attempts to find analytical solutions enabling the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulation
2320-428: The field of optimization , simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies. Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes. It is used for cases where it is prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in
2378-489: The field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in physics, mathematics , sciences, and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write, and present papers are part of the higher education of an astronomer, while most astronomers attain both a Master's degree and eventually a PhD degree in astronomy, physics or astrophysics . PhD training typically involves 5-6 years of study, including completion of upper-level courses in
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2436-429: The health professions. Simulators have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such as blood draw , to laparoscopic surgery and trauma care. They are also important to help on prototyping new devices for biomedical engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to research and develop tools for new therapies, treatments and early diagnosis in medicine. Many medical simulators involve
2494-425: The high school or university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in which participants assume roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which participants engage in negotiations, alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events. An example of
2552-468: The historical ages concerned. Astronomer An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth . Astronomers observe astronomical objects , such as stars , planets , moons , comets and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy . Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science , solar astronomy ,
2610-565: The latter would be Barnard College 's Reacting to the Past series of historical educational games. The National Science Foundation has also supported the creation of reacting games that address science and math education. In social media simulations, participants train communication with critics and other stakeholders in a private environment. In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development agencies. The Carana simulation, for example,
2668-694: The majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The American Astronomical Society , which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America , has approximately 8,200 members (as of 2024). This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology , and engineering , whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises about 12,700 members from 92 countries who are involved in astronomical research at
2726-399: The modeling almost effortless. Modern usage of the term "computer simulation" may encompass virtually any computer-based representation. In computer science , simulation has some specialized meanings: Alan Turing used the term simulation to refer to what happens when a universal machine executes a state transition table (in modern terminology, a computer runs a program) that describes
2784-441: The norm in most military training processes and there is a significant amount of data to suggest this is a useful tool for armed professionals. A virtual simulation is a category of simulation that uses simulation equipment to create a simulated world for the user. Virtual simulations allow users to interact with a virtual world . Virtual worlds operate on platforms of integrated software and hardware components. In this manner,
2842-572: The quality of service. It could be therefore hypothesized that by increasing the number of highly trained residents through the use of simulation training, that the simulation training does, in fact, increase patient safety. The first medical simulators were simple models of human patients. Since antiquity, these representations in clay and stone were used to demonstrate clinical features of disease states and their effects on humans. Models have been found in many cultures and continents. These models have been used in some cultures (e.g., Chinese culture) as
2900-433: The real thing (some circles use the term for computer simulations modelling selected laws of physics, but this article does not). These physical objects are often chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system. Interactive simulation is a special kind of physical simulation, often referred to as a human-in-the-loop simulation, in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in
2958-435: The same boundary conditions always produce identical results. Hybrid simulation (or combined simulation) corresponds to a mix between continuous and discrete event simulation and results in integrating numerically the differential equations between two sequential events to reduce the number of discontinuities. A stand-alone simulation is a simulation running on a single workstation by itself. A distributed simulation
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#17327651376223016-434: The state transitions, inputs and outputs of a subject discrete-state machine. The computer simulates the subject machine. Accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition systems , useful in the study of operational semantics . Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. In computer architecture ,
3074-505: The system can accept input from the user (e.g., body tracking, voice/sound recognition, physical controllers) and produce output to the user (e.g., visual display, aural display, haptic display) . Virtual simulations use the aforementioned modes of interaction to produce a sense of immersion for the user. There is a wide variety of input hardware available to accept user input for virtual simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them: Research in future input systems holds
3132-435: The user's actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations and procedural simulations that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with using standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse . An important medical application of
3190-530: The virtual environment with relatively minimal effort. It is possible that these types of systems will become standard input modalities in future virtual simulation systems. There is a wide variety of output hardware available to deliver a stimulus to users in virtual simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them: Clinical healthcare simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and diagnostic procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in
3248-411: The work of computer simulation. Historically, simulations used in different fields developed largely independently, but 20th-century studies of systems theory and cybernetics combined with spreading use of computers across all those fields have led to some unification and a more systematic view of the concept. Physical simulation refers to simulation in which physical objects are substituted for
3306-550: Was first developed by the United Nations Development Programme , and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for training staff to deal with fragile and conflict-affected countries. Military uses for simulation often involve aircraft or armoured fighting vehicles, but can also target small arms and other weapon systems training. Specifically, virtual firearms ranges have become
3364-498: Was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws . Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend
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