Middle French ( French : moyen français ) is a historical division of the French language that covers the period from the mid-14th to the early 17th centuries. It is a period of transition during which:
125-931: Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity . Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems (e.g. apartheid ) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often assumes that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include nativism , xenophobia , otherness , segregation , hierarchical ranking , supremacism , and related social phenomena. Racism refers to violation of racial equality based on equal opportunities ( formal equality ) or based on equality of outcomes for different races or ethnicities, also called substantive equality . While
250-460: A French speaker . Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person's wealth , education , social status , character or other traits, which may lead to discrimination. This has led to public debate surrounding localisation theories , likewise with overall diversity prevalence in numerous nations across the West . Linguistic discrimination
375-415: A mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory , game theory does not explain
500-636: A 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment ), religious discrimination occurs when someone
625-407: A certain socially undesirable group or social category. Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition. Under this approach, discrimination
750-489: A different race or ethnicity . Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions , practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during
875-567: A given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture, are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia , which is often characterized by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup . In that sense it is also similar to communalism as used in South Asia. Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning diverse ethnic or population groups. Whereas racism can be characterised by
1000-540: A large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to
1125-545: A lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages. Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published
1250-449: A majority or a dominant social group. So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed " white privilege ". Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in sociology and economics . Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of
1375-408: A majority or dominant group in society. Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, bigotry , and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those; but it cannot be equated with, nor is it synonymous, with these other terms. The term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in
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#17327755310581500-413: A more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on
1625-628: A multi-pronged effort to challenge and dismantle white supremacy in the US. According to dictionary definitions, racism is prejudice and discrimination based on race. Racism can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the oppression of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not. Foucauldian scholar Ladelle McWhorter, in her 2009 book, Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy , posits modern racism similarly, focusing on
1750-617: A myth rather than a reality. Academics commonly define racism not only in terms of individual prejudice, but also in terms of a power structure that protects the interests of the dominant culture and actively discriminates against ethnic minorities. From this perspective, while members of ethnic minorities may be prejudiced against members of the dominant culture, they lack the political and economic power to actively oppress them, and they are therefore not practicing "racism". The ideology underlying racism can manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although
1875-539: A name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms. The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality". Discrimination on
2000-480: A number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity. A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as
2125-436: A particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes. People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for
2250-407: A particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to them. Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression , the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded. This moralized definition of discrimination
2375-493: A person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on
2500-506: A political ideology in which rights and privileges are differentially distributed based on racial categories. The term "racist" may be an adjective or a noun, the latter describing a person who holds those beliefs. The origin of the root word "race" is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French , but there is no such agreement on how it generally came into Latin-based languages. A recent proposal
2625-609: A report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in Stockholm, Sweden . This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005,
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#17327755310582750-541: A restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bathroom, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling 's models of segregation and subsequent work. Centuries of European colonialism in the Americas, Africa and Asia were often justified by white supremacist attitudes. During
2875-615: A sentence, or " verb-second structure ", until the 16th century. Among the elites, Latin was still the language of education, administration, and bureaucracy. That changed in 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts , in which Francis I made French the sole language for legal acts. Regional differences were still extreme throughout the Kingdom of France : in the south of France, Occitan languages dominated; in east-central France, Franco-Provençal languages were predominant; and in
3000-509: A single definition. They also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas. Garner (2009: p. 11) summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas (an ideology) about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions (practices). Though many countries around
3125-592: A survey for the University of Kent , England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams , social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population. According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch , caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and
3250-458: A system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm. Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To objectify a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orientals exemplifies this as it
3375-557: A term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia . Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people. Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing
3500-553: A word's spelling and pronunciation. Nevertheless, Middle French spelling was overall fairly close to the pronunciation; unlike Modern French, word-final consonants were still pronounced though they were optionally lost when they preceded another consonant that started the next word. The French wars in Italy and the presence of Italians in the French court brought the French into contact with Italian humanism . Many words dealing with
3625-515: A young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University , measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment. In
3750-616: Is a misnomer, due to the lack of any actual science backing the claims. Most biologists , anthropologists , and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography , ethnicity, or a history of endogamy . Human genome research indicates that race is not a meaningful genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism as "[a]n earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it", and cites
3875-439: Is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes. Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination. The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to
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4000-467: Is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of
4125-470: Is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom". Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles , and may include
4250-443: Is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case. The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection." The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around
4375-630: Is frequently described as a relatively modern concept, evolving during the European age of imperialism , transformed by capitalism , and the Atlantic slave trade , of which it was a major driving force. It was also a major force behind racial segregation in the United States in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and of apartheid in South Africa ; 19th and 20th-century racism in Western culture
4500-447: Is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racial centrality (the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity) appears to affect the degree of discrimination African-American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination." Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress
4625-457: Is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. As of 2011 , there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India. Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism . Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as
4750-764: Is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism. Racism has played a role in genocides such as the Holocaust , the Armenian genocide , the Rwandan genocide , and the Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia , as well as colonial projects including the European colonization of the Americas , Africa , Asia , and the population transfer in
4875-509: Is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin". Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted
5000-548: Is racist, i.e. "reducing Nigeria to a nation of scammers and fraudulent princes, as some people still do online, is a stereotype that needs to be called out". Language , linguistics , and discourse are active areas of study in the humanities , along with literature and the arts. Discourse analysis seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. For example, Van Dijk (1992) examines
5125-446: Is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects." Such exposures influence our minds and they can cause subconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even towards objects. Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware. For example, scientists and activists have warned that the use of the stereotype "Nigerian Prince" for referring to advance-fee scammers
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5250-410: Is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and implicit attitudes , a component of implicit cognition . Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in
5375-636: Is that it derives from the Arabic ra's , which means "head, beginning, origin" or the Hebrew rosh , which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held the view that some races were inferior to others and they consequently believed that the differential treatment of races was fully justified. These early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions; the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism , though this term
5500-611: The Equality Act 2010 in the UK. Linguistic discrimination (also called glottophobia, linguicism and languagism) is unfair treatment of people based upon their use of language and the characteristics of their speech, such as their first language , their accent , the perceived size of their vocabulary (whether or not the speaker uses complex and varied words), their modality , and their syntax . For example, an Occitan speaker in France will probably be treated differently from
5625-549: The Greater East Asia Conference . Article 1 of the 1945 UN Charter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose. In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu , Claude Lévi-Strauss , Gunnar Myrdal , Julian Huxley , etc.—to "drop
5750-509: The IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq , including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving
5875-520: The United Nations 's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , there is no distinction between the terms "racial" and "ethnic" discrimination. It further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false , morally condemnable, socially unjust , and dangerous. The convention also declared that there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Racism
6000-495: The Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism , which treated "race" as a naturally given political unit. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, but there is not a wide agreement on a single definition of what racism is and what it is not. Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural racisms , in order to emphasize its many different forms that do not easily fall under
6125-532: The apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia After the Vietnam War , many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination. Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or
6250-480: The dehumanizing attitude toward indigenous Americans that the US was founded on." In an 1890 article about colonial expansion onto Native American land, author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians." In his Notes on
6375-405: The normative standard, whereas people of color are othered , and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased. At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix institutional racism . Cultural racism manifests as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of
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#17327755310586500-453: The southern or northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences. Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion . For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed
6625-646: The " white savior narrative in film ", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Textual analysis of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African-American writers have sometimes been portrayed in African-American studies as retreating from racial issues when they write about " whiteness ", while others identify this as an African-American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of
6750-407: The "others" are over "there". Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations. Racial discrimination refers to discrimination against someone on the basis of their race. Racial segregation is the separation of humans into socially-constructed racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in
6875-727: The 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education . Also, in 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was adopted, which was widely used on racial discrimination issues. The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , adopted in 1966: ... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has
7000-425: The 1965 UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , The term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent , or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in
7125-559: The Americas ( cacao , hamac , maïs ). The influence of the Anglo-Norman language on English had left words of French and Norman origin in England. Some words of Romance origin now found their way back into French as doublets through war and trade. Also, the meaning and usage of many words from Old French transformed. Spelling and punctuation were extremely variable. The introduction of printing in 1470 highlighted
7250-529: The Christian population. Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending , occupations that were only tolerated as a " necessary evil ". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places
7375-620: The English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between', from the verb discriminare , from discrimen 'distinction', from the verb discernere (corresponding to "to discern"). Since the American Civil War the term "discrimination" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in
7500-554: The Soviet Union including deportations of indigenous minorities. Indigenous peoples have been—and are—often subject to racist attitudes. In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, i.e., subscribing to the belief that the human population can or should be classified into races with differential abilities and dispositions, which in turn may motivate
7625-470: The State of Virginia , published in 1785, Thomas Jefferson wrote: "blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time or circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments of both body and mind." Attitudes of black supremacy , Arab supremacy , and East Asian supremacy also exist. Some scholars argue that in the US, earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into
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#17327755310587750-533: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex. One's sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality;
7875-471: The United States have proposed that institutional discrimination and cultural racism also give rise to conditions that contribute to persisting racial and economic health disparities. Middle French It is the first version of French that is largely intelligible to Modern French, contrary to Old French . The most important change found in Middle French is the complete disappearance of
8000-496: The author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the South as an African American. Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including works written by whites, such as Uncle Tom's Cabin , To Kill a Mockingbird , and Imitation of Life , or even the non-fiction work Black Like Me . These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called
8125-461: The basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality. Discrimination on
8250-590: The basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members. In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates. Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on
8375-430: The basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty . It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice , discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of
8500-616: The basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level. While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe. Thus, racism can be broadly defined to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on
8625-495: The belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another. Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of
8750-670: The belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment , rape , and other forms of sexual violence . Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality . It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics . Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of intersex status or sex characteristics . South Africa
8875-456: The concept of reverse racism . "Reverse racism" is a concept often used to describe acts of discrimination or hostility against members of a dominant racial or ethnic group while favoring members of minority groups. This concept has been used especially in the United States in debates over color-conscious policies (such as affirmative action ) intended to remedy racial inequalities. However, many experts and other commenters view reverse racism as
9000-479: The concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates. Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination: Discrimination, in labeling theory , takes form as mental categorization of minorities and
9125-619: The concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science , the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race", the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. shared ancestry or shared behavior). Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to
9250-578: The continued unification of French, the suppression of certain forms, and the prescription of rules, leading to Classical French. Middle French is the language found in the writings of Charles, Duke of Orléans , François Villon , Clément Marot , François Rabelais , Michel de Montaigne , Pierre de Ronsard , and the poets of La Pléiade . The affirmation and glorification of French finds its greatest manifestation in La Défense et illustration de la langue française ( The Defense and Illustration of
9375-443: The definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between
9500-613: The definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate. In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at
9625-420: The destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples". Othering is the term used by some to describe
9750-581: The different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims. He notes that when descriptions of actions have negative implications for the majority, and especially for white elites, they are often seen as controversial and such controversial interpretations are typically marked with quotation marks or they are greeted with expressions of distance or doubt. The previously cited book, The Souls of Black Folk by W.E.B. Du Bois, represents early African-American literature that describes
9875-461: The distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among academics , including anthropologists . Similarly, in British law , the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin". In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because
10000-413: The earliest sociological works on racism were written by sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois , the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from Harvard University . Du Bois wrote, "[t]he problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line ." Wellman (1993) defines racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of
10125-581: The early 20th century, the phrase " The White Man's Burden " was widely used to justify an imperialist policy as a noble enterprise. A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of Native Americans emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of the indigenous people as "merciless Indian savages", as they are described in the United States Declaration of Independence . Sam Wolfson of The Guardian writes that "the declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of
10250-733: The early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world. Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc. Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21. Indian Penal Code , 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises
10375-554: The emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin , they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group. The psychological impact of discrimination on health refers to the cognitive pathways through which discrimination impacts mental and physical health in members of marginalized , subordinate, and low-status groups (e.g. racial and sexual minorities). Research on
10500-434: The end of World War II , racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism : racism by then implied racial discrimination , racial supremacism , and a harmful intent. The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s. As its history indicates, the popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into widespread usage in
10625-553: The existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior. In relation to racism, color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction , for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as a way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, racial color blindness in fact unconsciously perpetuates
10750-458: The experimental laboratory", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this. In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game . At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about
10875-722: The final decision because of their race. Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression toward and/or avoidance of people of other races. Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes. While such "subconscious racial biases" do not fully fit
11000-451: The general population. Some view that capitalism generally transformed racism depending on local circumstances, but racism is not necessary for capitalism. Economic discrimination may lead to choices that perpetuate racism. For example, color photographic film was tuned for white skin as are automatic soap dispensers and facial recognition systems . Institutional racism (also known as structural racism , state racism or systemic racism)
11125-649: The globe have passed laws related to race and discrimination, the first significant international human rights instrument developed by the United Nations (UN) was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require economic rights , social rights including education, and
11250-603: The groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race , gender , age , species , religion , physical attractiveness or sexual orientation . Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of
11375-636: The individual experience. Implicit attitudes are not consciously identified (or they are inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feelings, thoughts, or actions towards social objects. These feelings, thoughts, or actions have an influence on behavior of which the individual may not be aware. Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt (2004) of Stanford University holds that, "blackness
11500-412: The list is not exhaustive. Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism
11625-433: The majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities. Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in
11750-684: The men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault. A number of countries, especially those in the Western world , have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples
11875-431: The military ( alarme , cavalier , espion , infanterie , camp , canon , soldat ) and artistic (especially architectural: arcade , architrave , balcon , corridor ; also literary: sonnet ) practices were borrowed from Italian. Those tendencies would continue through Classical French . There were also some borrowings from Spanish ( casque ) and German ( reître ) and from
12000-475: The need for reform in spelling . One proposed reform came from Jacques Peletier du Mans , who developed a phonetic spelling system and introduced new typographic signs (1550), but his attempt at spelling reform was not followed. The period saw the publication of the first French grammars and of the French-Latin dictionary of Robert Estienne (1539). At the beginning of the 17th century, French would see
12125-412: The north of France, Oïl languages other than Francien continued to be spoken. The fascination with classical texts led to numerous borrowings from Latin and Greek . Numerous neologisms based on Latin roots were introduced, and some scholars modified the spelling of French words to bring them into conformity with their Latin roots, sometimes erroneously. That often produced a radical difference between
12250-416: The notion of a dominant group, usually whites, vying for racial purity and progress, rather than an overt or obvious ideology focused on the oppression of nonwhites. In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and " ethnocentrism ". Often, the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within
12375-410: The noun declension system, which had been underway for centuries. There was no longer a distinction between nominative and oblique forms of nouns , and plurals became indicated by simply an s . The transformations necessitated an increased reliance on word order in the sentence, which becomes more or less the syntax of Modern but with a continued reliance on the verb in the second position of
12500-431: The opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the "advantaged" color) consistently played the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used
12625-452: The patterns that produce racial inequality. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism , biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism". Color blind practices are "subtle, institutional , and apparently nonracial" because race is explicitly ignored in decision-making. If race is disregarded in predominantly white populations, for example, whiteness becomes
12750-418: The perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting
12875-601: The political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. In their 1978 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (Article 1), the UN states, "All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity." The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race , in part because
13000-475: The purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. (Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) Discrimination Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on
13125-475: The race of the person being evaluated. This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in
13250-519: The region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from
13375-440: The relation between discrimination and health became a topic of interest in the 1990s, when researchers proposed that persisting racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes could potentially be explained by racial/ethnic differences in experiences with discrimination. Although the bulk of the research tend to focus on the interactions between interpersonal discrimination and health, researchers studying discrimination and health in
13500-424: The right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist . Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive
13625-406: The rights to cultural and political participation and civil liberty . It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour , sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status". The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination". According to
13750-571: The same definition. Linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to preference for one use of language over others. Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that
13875-445: The same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights. Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by
14000-445: The standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils
14125-658: The subordinated position of racial minorities". In both sociology and economics, the outcomes of racist actions are often measured by the inequality in income , wealth , net worth , and access to other cultural resources (such as education), between racial groups. In sociology and social psychology , racial identity and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies. Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Cazenave and Maddern (1999) define racism as "a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and
14250-594: The term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups ". The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust . It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question", and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced
14375-499: The term "racialism" in a 1902 quote. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shorter term "racism" in a quote from the year 1903. It was defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition 1989) as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race"; the same dictionary termed racism a synonym of racialism : "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By
14500-681: The use of stereotype . This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments. Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in
14625-440: The use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category. Important UN documents addressing discrimination include: Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include
14750-400: The use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical. The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent, and skin color. Sociologists , in general, recognize "race" as a social construct . This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on
14875-420: The world, including some, where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination . The term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in
15000-559: The world. Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children. Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M , found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview
15125-485: Was at first considered an act of racism. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured the idea of language-based discrimination as linguicism, which was defined as "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimize, effectuate, and reproduce unequal divisions of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold
15250-725: Was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non- Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina . Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the religious police . In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($ 320 to $ 1,300), and deportation. In
15375-649: Was moderated by racial ideology and social beliefs. Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West, where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore and challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo , even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism
15500-420: Was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as
15625-533: Was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive. By making these generalizations and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap. Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and
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