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84-533: The Rais were an Indian family that reigned in the Sindh region for a period of 144 years from c.  489 to 632 A.D. They allegedly had familial ties with other rulers of South Asia including Kashmir, Kabul, Rajasthan and Gujarat. As attested by coinage, the region had previously been under the indirect influence of the Sasanians , at least from the reign of Shapur II . The last Sassanian mints discovered from

168-535: A femme fatale working in conjunction with a willing yet ethical apprentice. Chach would be subjected to protracted resistance from Bachhera, a relative of Sahasi II and governor and vassal of the Multan province, but was never dislodged. Sindh Europe North America Oceania Sindh ( / ˈ s ɪ n d / SIND ; Sindhi : سِنْڌ ‎ ; Urdu : سِنْدھ , pronounced [sɪndʱə] ; abbr. SD , historically romanized as Sind )

252-581: A BA in math and physics in 1991. In 1997, he graduated from Miami University in Ohio with a second BA with honors in history. At Miami, he completed two theses, one in art history on Paul Klee and Frida Kahlo , and a second on early Islamic history with Matthew S. Gordon. Ahmed's undergraduate thesis on early Islamic history earned him admission to the University of Chicago , where he completed his PhD in 2008. His graduate thesis centered on

336-515: A harbour at the city of Patala in Sindh. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator , when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria , while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BCE,

420-531: A huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports Sindh ibex , wild sheep (urial) and black bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants too in KNP near

504-543: A large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The Indus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh. Hog deer and wild bear occur, particularly in

588-580: A long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai , having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend that highlights

672-642: A major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between

756-552: A year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season. Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on Jacobabad ), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on Hyderabad ), and Lar (the lower region, centred on Karachi ). The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during

840-615: Is Sindh's most multiethnic city which hosts most of the province's Urdu-speaking population who form a plurality, along many other groups. Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about 579 kilometres (360 mi) from north to south and 442 kilometres (275 mi) (extreme) or 281 kilometres (175 mi) (average) from east to west, with an area of 140,915 square kilometres (54,408 sq mi) of Pakistani territory. Sindh

924-579: Is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river," a reference to the Indus River . Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu , a Dravidian word for date palm , a tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling Sind (from the Perso-Arabic سند ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in the Sindh Assembly , and

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1008-524: Is a province of Pakistan . Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province by population after Punjab . It is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan to the west and north-west and Punjab to the north. It shares an International border with the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to

1092-660: Is bounded by the Thar Desert to the east, the Kirthar Mountains to the west and the Arabian Sea and Rann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River . Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: Siro ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above Sehwan ; Vicholo ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to Hyderabad ; and Lāṟu ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of

1176-646: Is co-executive editor of the Journal of the History of Ideas . Ahmed was born in 1971 in Lahore , Pakistan . At a young age, his family moved to Doha , Qatar , where his father worked as a migrant laborer . In the 8th grade, Ahmed and his family moved back to Lahore. Having grown up abroad, Ahmed initially struggled to reintegrate back into Pakistani culture, as his Arabic was more proficient than his Urdu . Ahmed graduated from Punjab University in Lahore with

1260-466: Is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east. During the Bronze Age , the territory of Sindh was known as Sindhu-Sauvīra , covering

1344-436: Is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above 46  °C (115  °F ) between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of 2 °C (36 °F) occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until

1428-467: Is received in the winters. The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a unicameral and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi . The provincial government is led by Chief Minister who is directly elected by the popular and landslide votes ; the Governor serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by

1512-635: Is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely " Peccavi " – or "I have sinned" ( Latin ). The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential. The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into

1596-466: Is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam ( transl.  'Gateway of Islam ' ), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to fall under Islamic rule . The province is well known for its distinct culture , which is strongly influenced by Sufist Islam , an important marker of Sindhi identity for both Hindus and Muslims . Sindh is prominent for its history during

1680-457: Is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of the country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the Port of Karachi . The remainder of Sindh consists of an agriculture -based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country. Sindh

1764-689: The Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali . Under the Umayyads (661–750 CE), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab with the governor of Bahrain, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas , dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch and Debal . Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention

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1848-565: The Bombay Presidency . Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab. Later, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At

1932-615: The British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo . The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur , whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955. The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier

2016-597: The Bronze Age under the Indus Valley civilization , and is home to two UNESCO -designated World Heritage Sites : the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro . The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BCE under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós , hence the modern Indus . The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind . The word Sind

2100-459: The Chachnama , he reluctantly conceded to Devi's plan and the news of Sahasi II's death was withheld from the public; meanwhile, she incited the familial claimants to the throne in a fatal internecine conflict. Then Devi proclaimed that Sahasi II, though recovering, could not hold court and, hence, had appointed Chach as the caretaker ruler for his lifetime. The courtiers were lured into supporting

2184-649: The Indus Delta below Hyderabad. The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, Acacia rupestris (kher), and Tecomella undulata ( lohirro ) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the Acacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The Azadirachta indica (neem) (nim), Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber), Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) and Capparis aphylla (kirir) are among

2268-648: The President of Pakistan . The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh , who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan . Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in Pakistan's politics . In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the left-wing and its political culture serves as a dominant place for

2352-576: The Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh. Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule from their capital of Khudabad , before shifting to Hyderabad from 1768 onwards. The Talpurs succeeded the Kalhoras and four branches of

2436-510: The Striped hyena (charakh), jackal , fox , porcupine , common gray mongoose and hedgehog . The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck

2520-696: The Sultan of Delhi , and was allowed to continue on as a vassal. The Sammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established the Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat , under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq , the sultan of Delhi . Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore

2604-477: The Wazir Buddhiman (literarily Wise) informs Chach about the territorial expanses and administrative structure of Rais under Rai Sahiras II. The Chachnama , in its opening verses, notes Rai Sahiras II to be famed for his justice and generosity; his coffers were stated to be overflowing with wealth. The kingdom was divided into four units, each under a governor or a vassal. The southern unit extended from

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2688-644: The left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide general elections , in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its centre-right agenda . In metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Hyderabad , the MQM (another party of

2772-605: The 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement. A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following. The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh. Sindh came to be at

2856-830: The 2023 census indicated a population of 5,182 Sikhs. Languages of Sindh (2023) According to the 2023 census , the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi , the first language of 33,462,299 60% of the population. It is followed by Urdu 12,409,745 (22%), Pashto 2,955,893 (5.3%), Punjabi 2,265,471 (4.1%), Balochi 1,208,147 (2.2%), Saraiki 913,418 (1.6%), and Hindko 830,581 (1.5), Brahui 265,769, Mewati 57,059, Kashmiri 53,249, Balti 27,193, Shina 22,273, Koshistani 14,885, 777 Kalasha and others are 1,151,650, Other minority languages include Kutchi , Gujarati , Aer , Bagri , Bhaya , Brahui , Dhatki , Ghera , Goaria , Gurgula , Jadgali , Jandavra , Jogi , Kabutra , Kachi Koli , Parkari Koli , Wadiyari Koli , Loarki , Marwari , Sansi , and Vaghri . Karachi city

2940-561: The Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia . The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate . Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 CE, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib . During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in

3024-464: The King's wrath and also swerving further away from the scriptural ideals of a Brahminical life, he did acced to her request to provide companionship, and their relationship continued to blossom. Sahasi II allowed him unprecedented control in the affairs of the state until his death by natural causes; he did not have any children. On Sahasi II's death, Devi proposed that Chach usurp the throne. According to

3108-581: The Rai dynasty exists. The narrative in the Chachnama about the Rais has since penetrated into the regional historiography in Persian writers like Tarikh i Sind in the 17th century and Tuhfatul karaam in the 18th century. However, some scholars view the Chachnama as an original work that claimed to be a translation only for political expediency and doubt the accuracy of the historical narratives contained within

3192-504: The Rais is likely to lay in this power vacuum. However, their origins remain unknown. Sindh, as a region, had no extant written histories until the late-medieval era and the sole source of knowledge about the dynasty remains Chachnama , purportedly, a literal Persian translation (c. 13th-century) of an undated Arabic text that is no longer extant. Literary sources do not record Sasanian activity and details of their actions in Sindh, and no epigraphic, archaeological or numismatic evidence for

3276-478: The Sassanian Governor of Nimroz into Kirman ; he was admired for not leaving the battlefield, despite being deserted by his forces. Makran and other unknown territories were lost in the conflict. Rai Sahiras II was succeeded by Sahasi II. Under his regime too, the kingdom exhibited socioeconomic prosperity; the Chachnama praises him as a benevolent ruler who always chose to abide by his counsel. He

3360-591: The Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent. Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta . The Samma civilization contributed significantly to

3444-897: The Umayyad Caliphate . This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The Habbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became semi-independent from the Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad . The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy

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3528-550: The annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests. Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in

3612-529: The approval of the masses. Thereafter, Devi had him declared as the heir to the throne, claiming him to be a man of unsurmountable intellect and bravery, and married him with the approval of the court. According to Manan Ahmed Asif , the story of the fall of the Rai Dynasty and rise of the Brahman dynasty is, as portrayed in the Chachnama , shows how the new dynasty was established out of the intrigues of

3696-477: The area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan). Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area. These areas remained under Persian control until the invasion by Alexander . Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. He constructed

3780-538: The argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid. The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum. The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh. Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism . One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish ,

3864-423: The arrival of Muslims to the Indian subcontinent , and the memory and history of Muhammad Bin Qasim as a "conqueror". At Chicago, Ahmed studied under Muzaffar Alam , Fred Donner , Ronald Inden , Dipesh Chakrabarty and Shahid Amin . Ahmed's work often combines archaeological, numismatic, epigraphic, and literary evidence and focuses on the history of South Asia . According to Ahmed, Muslim presence in

3948-652: The capital. The Brahmin dynasty of Sindh succeeded the Rai dynasty . Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama , a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty. After the empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's Caliphal province of Sind . After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ,

4032-572: The central inundation belt. Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The national parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature and Sindh Wildlife Department support

4116-602: The coasts of the Arabian Sea to Lohana and Samona, including Nerun and Debal port , and had its capital at Brahmanabad . The central unit spanned around Jankan and Rujaban to the Makran frontier ; it had Sewistan as its capital. The western unit extended over a vast area—Batia, Chachpur and Dehrpur—of western Sindh; Iskalanda was the capital. The northern unit, adjoining Kashmir, was centred around Multan . Sahiras II met his death while attempting to ward off an invasion by

4200-438: The coverup, and Chach ruled as the de facto King for about six months. However, the news of the King's death somehow made way to Sahasi II's brother, Rai Mahrit, ruler of Chittor, who claimed the throne and mounted a military offensive. Chach was ambiguous about the morality of taking on a legitimate successor but was coaxed by Devi to resist. In the faceoff, he secured a freak victory and went on to organize public feasts to win

4284-599: The dynasty were established. One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad , another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur , a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas , and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan . They were ethnically Baloch , and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by

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4368-448: The east; it is also bounded by the Arabian Sea to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River , the Thar Desert of Sindh in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India , and the Kirthar Mountains in the western portion of the province. The economy of Sindh is the second largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab ; its provincial capital Karachi

4452-405: The end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January. Sindh lies between the two monsoons —the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayan mountains —and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice

4536-437: The evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill . It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta. They were later overthrown by the Turkic Arghuns in the late 15th century. In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar , himself born in

4620-408: The forefront of the Khilafat Movement . Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified 'Hindu' with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing

4704-403: The government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah. Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G. M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in

4788-431: The huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the monsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant olive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators. Sindh lies in a tropical to subtropical region; it

4872-440: The interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook, both the Muslim landed elite, waderas , and the Hindu commercial elements, banias , collaborated in oppressing

4956-423: The last census conducted prior to the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 4,840,795 out of which 3,462,015 (71.5%) were Muslims, 1,279,530 (26.4%) were Hindus and the remaining were Tribals, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Jains, Jews, and Buddhists. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hindus overall, accounting for 8.8% of the population, roughly around 4.9 million people, and 13.3% of

5040-420: The left with the support of Muhajirs ) has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province. In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system

5124-414: The local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha. Sindh has the second highest Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2023 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 55.7 million. Religion in Sindh according to 2023 census Islam in Sindh has

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5208-404: The lower Indus Valley, with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Pañjāb around Multān . The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī . The Achaemenids conquered the region and established the satrapy of Hindush . The territory may have corresponded to

5292-403: The lower Sindh region. Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), blackbuck , wild sheep ( Urial or gadh) and wild bear are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do

5376-444: The mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors. The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of

5460-428: The more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of Avicennia tomentosa (timmer) and Ceriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in

5544-427: The name is now spelt Sindh . Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization . There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro . Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilization, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems. It

5628-410: The old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the Ghaznavid Empire , thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh. The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century. Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to

5712-403: The penultimate non-Muslim polity in the region and forming the backdrop of the rise of Chach in the Chachnama , received some attention in contemporary scholarship. In modern-day historiography, the dynasty has attracted sparse scholarship except from a few numismatists . Nothing particular is known about the first three kings; their names are mentioned in a single line in the Chachnama , where

5796-425: The predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus. In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues. Due to British policies, much land in Sindh

5880-446: The province's rural population as per 2023 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of

5964-403: The region are of Peroz I (r. 459–484); they are inscribed with the name of one " Ranaditya Satya ", who is assumed to be the eponymous local ruler. In 484 C.E., as Peroz I suffered an overwhelming defeat in his war with the Hephthalites (484 C.E.), the Sassanians were no more a force to reckon with in their frontier territories and new dynasties arose in many of these places. The origin of

6048-586: The region came under the Indo-Greeks , followed by the Indo Scythians , who ruled with their capital at Minnagara . Later on, Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions, known as Hind . The local Rai dynasty emerged from Sindh and reigned for a period of 144 years, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India. Aror was noted to be

6132-622: The region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriages . 2020 community estimates indicated the Sikh population in Sindh stood at approximately 10,000 persons, while

6216-490: The religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats, the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province, it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan. In 1947, violence did not constitute

6300-455: The results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids. These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships. Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of Uthman . In 712, Mohammed Bin Qasim defeated the Brahmin dynasty and annexed it to

6384-468: The strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta . The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis. In 1941,

6468-586: The subcontinent is not to be understood as a history of conquests or Manichean conflict (religious, military, etc.). Ahmed argues instead, that we recognize that presence as “lived spaces” (A Book 49), interconnected with each other across the region, and full of particularities that must be understood in their own terms. In 2014, he helped co-found Columbia's Group for Experimental Methods in Humanistic Research , which focuses on “mobilized humanities” and innovations in scholarly methodologies. One of

6552-595: The summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches 43–44 °C (109–111 °F). Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower rainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about 35–38 °C (95–100 °F). In the Kirthar range at 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District , temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall

6636-542: The text. After the British conquest of Sindh , as the colonial bureaucrats sought to justify their rule by highlighting how the deposed Muslim rulers had long-oppressed the Hindu natives, the Chachnama was accorded particular importance as it documented the origins of Muslim rule in the subcontinent. It was cited in works authored by colonial bureaucrats, especially the British Gazetteers. The Rai dynasty, being

6720-458: The victim's breath in his sleep. Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the Balochistan border in Kirthar Mountains . The rare Houbara bustard finds Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides

6804-433: Was married to Sohman Devi. During his regime, Chach, a poor, learned Brahmin , joined the imperial bureaucracy and rose through the ranks quickly, eventually becoming secretary to Rai Sahasi II. However, as Chach gained access to the interiors of the palace, Devi, in an unfulfilling relationship with an ageing Sahasi II, began to grow enamoured of him and proposed marriage. While Chach did not consent to it, fearing incurring

6888-523: Was one of the world's earliest major cities , contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Minoan Crete , and Caral-Supe . Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site

6972-527: Was to be restored. Manan Ahmed Asif Manan Ahmed Asif , also known as Manan Ahmed , is a Pakistani historian of South Asia and West Asia. He is an associate professor of history at Columbia University in New York City . He is the founder of the South Asia blog Chapati Mystery and co-founder of Columbia's Group for Experimental Methods in Humanistic Research . Since 2021, he

7056-491: Was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades. Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic

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