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107-448: Rancho La Brea was a 4,439-acre (17.96 km) Mexican land grant in present-day Los Angeles County, California , given in 1828 to Antonio Jose Rocha and Nemisio Dominguez by José Antonio Carrillo , the alcalde of Los Angeles . Rancho La Brea consisted of one square league of land of what is now Wilshire's Miracle Mile , Hollywood , and parts of West Hollywood . The grant included the famous La Brea Tar Pits . The title awarded by

214-799: A declaration of war by the United States of America . Action in California began with the taking of Monterey on July 7, 1846, Los Angeles in August, other battles in December, 1846, then retaking of Los Angeles in January, 1847, which terminated the authority and jurisdiction of Mexican officials later that year. Armed resistance ended in California with the Treaty of Cahuenga signed on January 13, 1847. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , ending

321-479: A 1995 Los Angeles Times article, points to such examples as Cesar Chavez , Luisa Moreno and Bert Corona . As seen here, sources differ on elements of classification of the term “Californio”. “At a minimum” means the most restrictive grouping included within every grouping stated above. Thus, this group consists of the Californian elite who were descendants of Spanish settlers and who acquired land during

428-617: A Californio as both a native or resident of this state and a specific ethnic group: the Spanish settlers and their descendants in California. Authors such as Douglas Monroy, Damian Bacich or Covadonga Lamar Prieto, among others, define Californios as exclusively applying to Alta California residents and their descendants.   Historians Hunt Janin and Ursula Carlson consider a Californio to be any settler who migrated to Alta California and their descendants; and also non-Hispanic immigrants who intermarried with Hispanics and integrated into

535-569: A Californio, was the governor of California during the conflict. The Pacific Squadron , the United States Naval force stationed in the Pacific was instrumental in the capture of Alta California after war was declared on April 24, 1846. The U.S. Navy with its force of 350–400 U.S. Marines and "bluejacket" sailors on board several U.S. Naval ships near California were essentially the only significant United States military force on

642-521: A bear and star (the " Bear Flag ") to symbolize their taking control. The words "California Republic" appeared on the flag but were never officially adopted by the insurgents. The present flag of California is based on the original "Bear Flag". Their capture of the small garrison in Sonoma was later called the " Bear Flag Revolt ". The Republic's only commander-in-chief was William B. Ide , whose command lasted 25 days. On June 23, 1846, Frémont arrived from

749-525: A crew of 600, man-of-war HMS  Collingwood , flagship under Sir George S. Seymour, also arrived at about this time outside Monterey Harbor. Both British ships observed, but did not enter the conflict. Shortly after July 9, when it became clear the US Navy was taking action, the short-lived Bear Flag Republic was converted into a United States military occupation and the Bear Flag was replaced by

856-408: A cross', establishing the first mission in upper Las Californias , Mission San Diego de Alcalá . Colonists began arriving in 1774. Monterey, California was established in 1770 by Father Junípero Serra and Gaspar de Portolà (first governor of Las Californias province (1767–1770), explorer and founder of San Diego and Monterey). Monterey was settled with two friars and about 40 men and served as

963-430: A degree of social racial segregation by custom, while maintaining Spanish-language newspapers, entertainment, schools, bars, and clubs. Cultural practices were often tied to local churches and mutual aid societies. At some point in the early 20th century, the official recordkeepers (census takers, city records, etc.) began grouping together all Californios, Mexicanos, and Native ( Indio ) peoples with Spanish surnames under

1070-760: A difficult time persuading people to emigrate to such an isolated outpost with no agriculture, no towns, no stores or developments of almost any kind. The majority of settlers were recruited from the northwestern parts of Mexico. The only tentative link with Mexico was via ship after the Quechans (Yumas) closed the Colorado River 's Yuma Crossing in 1781. For the next 40 years, an average of only 2.5 ships per year visited California with 13 years showing no recorded ships arriving. In Californio society, casta ( caste ) designations carried more weight than they did in older communities of central Mexico. One similar concept

1177-502: A dispatch from Gillespie notifying him of the situation. Gillespie, on September 30, finally accepted the Californio terms and departed for San Pedro with his forces, weapons, flags and two cannon (the others were spiked and left behind). Gillespie's men were accompanied by the exchanged American prisoners and several non-Californio residents. It would take about four months of intermittent sparring before Gillespie could again raise

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1284-600: A home on the plaza at Sonoma, where he entertained all who came with hospitality; few travelers of note came to California without visiting him. At Petaluma he had a great ranch house called La Hacienda. About 1849 on his home farm called Lachryma Montis (Tear of the Mountain), he built a modern frame house where he spent the later years of his life. Vallejo tried to get the California State Capital moved permanently to Benicia, California on land he sold to

1391-481: A maximum of 160 acres (0.65 km ). Land from titles rejected by the courts became part of the public domain and available to homesteaders after the first federal Homestead Act of 1862 was passed, allowing anyone to claim up to 160 acres (0.65 km ). This resulted in additional pressure on Congress, and beginning with Rancho Suscol in 1863, it passed special acts that allowed certain claimants to pre-empt their land without regard to acreage. By 1866 this privilege

1498-452: A mountain range. The 588 grants made by Spanish and Mexican authorities in California between 1769 and 1846 encompassed more than 8,850,000 acres (3,580,000 ha), or nearly 14,000 square miles (36,000 km ). The settlement of land titles was frequently complicated and lengthy. Even in cases where the boundaries were more specific, many markers had been destroyed before accurate surveys could be made. Aside from indefinite survey lines,

1605-519: A portion of their land to pay for defense fees or gave attorneys land in lieu of payment. Rejected Spanish and Mexican land claims resulted in conflicting claims by the grantees, squatters, and settlers seeking the same land. This resulted in pressure on Congress to change the rules. Under the Preemption Act of 1841 , squatters were able to pre-empt others' claims to portions of the land and acquire clear title by paying $ 1.25 an acre for up to

1712-651: A private. The first job given to the California Battalion and was to assist in the capture of San Diego and Pueblo de Los Angeles . On July 26, 1846, Lieutenant Colonel Frémont's California Battalion of about 160 boarded the sloop USS  Cyane , under the command of Captain Samuel Francis Du Pont , and sailed for San Diego. They landed July 29, 1846, and a detachment of Marines and blue-jackets, followed shortly by Frémont's California Battalion from Cyane , landed and took possession of

1819-604: A wealthy educated woman of influence and town matriarch, asked to speak with him. She advised him that a generous peace would be to his political advantage. Fremont later wrote of this 2-hour meeting, "I found that her object was to use her influence to put an end to the war, and to do so upon such just and friendly terms of compromise as would make the peace acceptable and enduring". The next day, Bernarda accompanied Fremont south. On January 11, 1847, General Jose Maria Flores turned over his command to Andrés Pico and fled. On January 12, Bernarda went alone to Pico's camp and told him of

1926-667: The Catholic Church (estimated then at about one-third of all settled property), which was continually granted property by many landowners when they died and controlled property supposedly held in trust for the Native Americans. This land, as it gradually accumulated, was seldom sold, as it cost nothing to keep, but could be rented out to gain additional income for the Catholic Church to pay its priests , friars , bishops, and other expenses. The Catholic Church

2033-692: The Public Land Commission in 1852, but it was rejected in 1860. As a lawyer and surveyor, Henry Hancock worked for the Rocha family to aid them with their efforts to prove their claim to Rancho La Brea. The Rochas finally won their claim (the grant was recorded as patented to "A. J. Rocha et al." in 1873). The grant included the famous La Brea Tar Pits . As happened to other rancheros, the claimants' legal expenses left them broke. In 1860, Antonio José Rocha's son, José Jorge Rocha , deeded Rancho La Brea to Henry Hancock . Hancock paid $ 20,000 for

2140-529: The Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando ranch which makes up large part of what is present day Los Angeles. He went on to become a California State Assemblyman and later a California State Senator. His brother former governor of Alta California (under Mexican rule) Pío Pico also became a U.S. citizen and a prominent ranch owner/businessman in California after the war. Many others were not so fortunate as droughts decimated their herds in

2247-795: The Spanish and Mexican governments from 1775 to 1846. The Spanish Concessions of land were made to retired soldiers as an inducement for them to settle in the frontier. These Concessions reverted to the Spanish crown upon the death of the recipient. After independence, the Mexican government encouraged settlement in these areas by issuing much larger land grants to both native-born and naturalized Mexican citizens. The grants were usually two or more square leagues , or 35 square kilometres (14 sq mi) in size. Unlike Spanish Concessions, Mexican land grants provided permanent, unencumbered ownership rights. Most ranchos granted by Mexico were located along

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2354-502: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , wherein it guaranteed full protection of all property rights for Mexican citizens—with an unspecified time limit. Many ranch owners with their thousands of acres and large herds of cattle, sheep and horses went on to live prosperous lives under U.S. rule. Former commander of the California Lancers Andrés Pico became a U.S. citizen after his return to California and acquired

2461-481: The U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers . Rumors that the Californio government in California was planning to arrest and deport many of the new residents as they had in 1844 led to a degree of uncertainty. On June 14, 1846, thirty-three settlers in Sonoma Valley took preemptive action and captured the small Californio garrison of Sonoma, California without firing a shot and raised a homemade flag with

2568-661: The U.S. Navy ships in the harbor to the U.S. flag now flying over Monterey. Two days later on July 9, USS  Portsmouth , under Captain John S. Montgomery, landed 70 Marines and bluejacket sailors at Clark's Point in San Francisco Bay and captured Yerba Buena (now named San Francisco ) without firing a shot. On July 11, the Royal Navy sloop HMS  Juno entered San Francisco Bay, causing Montgomery to man his defenses. The large British ship, 2,600 tons with

2675-490: The U.S. flag . Commodore Robert F. Stockton took over as the senior U.S. military commander in California in late July 1846 and asked Frémont's force of California militia and his 60 men to form the California Battalion with U.S. Army pay and ranks with Fremont in command. The California "Republic" disbanded and William Ide enlisted in the California Battalion , when it was established in late July 1846, as

2782-466: The missions for several generations in some cases. When the missions were secularized or dismantled and the Indians did not have to live under continued friar and military control, they were left essentially to survive on their own. Many of the Native Americans reverted to their former tribal existence and left the missions, while others found they could get room and board and some clothing by working for

2889-472: The 1970s and his death in 2004. Coates and his wife Nancy both expressed their wishes that the Rancho remain undeveloped. After her death in 2006, ownership of the land passed to their daughter, Theodate Coates, an artist from New York City. Despite her parents' wishes that development be kept off of the Rancho, she has taken steps to remove Rancho Guejito's status as an agricultural preserve and eventually develop

2996-470: The 20th century. These settlements grew into modern California cities, including Santa Ana , San Diego , San Fernando , San Jose , Monterey , Los Alamitos , San Juan Capistrano , San Bernardino , Santa Barbara , Arvin , Mariposa , Hemet and Indio . From the 1850s until the 1960s, the Hispanics (of Spanish, Mexican and regional Native American origins) lived in relative autonomy. They practiced

3103-451: The 84,000-acre (340 km ) Rancho Suscol and other properties by Governor José Figueroa in 1834 and later. Vallejo's younger brother, Jose Manuel Salvador Vallejo (1813–1876), was granted the 22,718-acre (91.94 km ) Rancho Napa and other additional grants known as Salvador's Ranch. Over the hills of Mariano Vallejo's estate of Petaluma roamed ten thousand cattle, four to six thousand horses, and many thousands of sheep. He occupied

3210-721: The Americans in their quarters at the Government House. Gillespie and his men withdrew from their headquarters in town to Fort Hill which, unfortunately, had no water. Gillespie was caught in a trap, badly outnumbered by the besiegers. John Brown, an American, called by the Californios Juan Flaco , meaning "Lean John", succeeded in breaking through the Californio lines and riding by horseback to San Francisco Bay (a distance of almost 400 miles (640 km)) in an amazing 52 hours where he delivered to Stockton

3317-590: The California coast around San Francisco Bay, inland along the Sacramento River, and within the San Joaquin Valley. When the government secularized the Mission churches in 1833, it required that land be set aside from their holdings for each Neophyte (or converted) Indian family who had been living at the missions. But the Native Americans were quickly brushed aside by Californios who, with

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3424-773: The Californias. They established the presidios of California and subsequently enabled the foundation of the California mission system . Later, the primary cultural focus of the Californio population became the Vaquero tradition practiced by the landed gentry , who received large land grants and created the Rancho system . In the 1820s–40s, American and European settlers increasingly migrated to Mexican California. Many married Californio women and became Mexican citizens, learning Spanish and often converting to Catholicism ,

3531-488: The Californio culture during the Mexican era, and their descendants. Calisphere and author Ferol Egan restrict the meaning of Californio to the Californian elite who acquired land during the Spanish and Mexican periods and their descendants. Leonard Pitt considers a Californio to be any Spanish-speaking person born in California. Writer Jose Antonio Burciaga considers Californios to be any Hispanic living in California, even if they have lived there temporarily. Burciaga, in

3638-491: The Foreign Miners' Tax discussed below forced between five thousand and fifteen thousand foreigners out of work in just a few months. According to Antonio F. Coronel's accounts, there was systematic race-influenced violence conducted by Americans to force out Californios and other Latinos. One account tells of a Frenchman and "un español" being lynched for supposed theft in 1848. Despite offers by Californios to replace

3745-532: The Hispanic towns. California's Governor Pío Pico was criticized for his alleged descent from mestizo and mulato ( mulatto ) settlers. In the 1830s, the newly formed Mexican government was experiencing difficulties, having gone through several revolts, wars, and internal conflicts and a seemingly never-ending string of Mexican Presidents . One of the problems in Mexico was the large amount of land controlled by

3852-621: The Land Commission confirmed 604 of the 813 claims it reviewed, most decisions were appealed to US District Court and some to the Supreme Court . The confirmation process required lawyers, translators, and surveyors, and took an average of 17 years (including the Civil War , 1861–1865) to resolve. It proved expensive for landholders to defend their titles through the court system. In many cases, they had to sell or give title to

3959-442: The Land Commission had to determine whether the grantees had fulfilled the requirements of the Mexican colonization laws. Mexican officials often did not keep adequate records and sometimes did not provide grantees with any documentation of the grant. Many grants required additional approvals before they were legal. Conditions of the grant required the grantee to live on the land. All of these requirements were rarely fulfilled. While

4066-877: The Mexican War, was signed February 2, 1848 and California became a Territory of the United States. Between 1847 and 1849, California was run by the U.S. military. A constitutional convention met in Monterey in September 1849, and set up a state government. It operated for 10 months before California was admitted to the Union as the 31st State by the United States Congress , as part of the Compromise of 1850 , enacted on September 9, 1850. While

4173-481: The Mexican government in the 1880s. Rancho El Rosario , Rancho Cueros de Venado and Rancho Tecate were each granted to citizens of San Diego in the 1820s or 1830s and lay wholly in what is now Baja California as was the Rancho San Antonio Abad , whose origin and title is more obscure. Their titles were never subjected to dispute in U.S. courts. The rancheros became land-rich and cash-poor, and

4280-532: The Mexican grants (at $ 2 or $ 3 per acre) with his profits from the sale of gold he had found in a rich placer mine. He engaged in the commercial development of the tar deposits on Rancho La Brea. He shipped considerable quantities to San Francisco by schooner. After Hancock's death in 1883, it was owned by his wife, Ida Hancock Ross . Most of Rancho La Brea was later subdivided and developed by his surviving son, Captain George Allan Hancock . He owned

4387-628: The Pacific Coast in the early months of the Mexican–American War. The Royal Navy Pacific Station ships in the Pacific had more men and were more heavily armed than the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron, but did not have orders to help or hinder the occupation of California. New orders would have taken almost two years to get back to the British ships. The Marines were stationed aboard each ship to assist in ship-to-ship combat, as snipers in

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4494-530: The Rancho La Brea Oil Company and donated 23 acres (93,000 m) of Hancock Park to Los Angeles County in 1924 to preserve and exhibit the fossils exhumed from Rancho La Brea. The La Brea Tar Pits within the Park are a now registered National Natural Landmark . Arthur Gilmore bought some of the Rancho land in the 1890s and started a dairy farm. Drilling for water, he struck oil. This find

4601-566: The Spanish and Mexican periods and their descendants. “At a maximum” means the most expansive definition inferred above. This group consists of any settler who migrated to California or any person born in California and their descendants, plus anyone who resides in California. In 1769, Gaspar de Portolá and less than two hundred men, on expedition founded the Presidio of San Diego (military post). On July 16, Franciscan friars Junípero Serra , Juan Viscaino and Fernando Parron raised and 'blessed

4708-520: The United States had annexed the territory, were prospecting for gold in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada . Although the territory they were in had up until recently been Mexican land, Californios and other Mexicans very quickly became the minorities and were seen as the foreigners. Once the Gold Rush had truly started in 1849, the campsites were segregated by nationality, further establishing

4815-582: The alcalde in 1828 was confirmed by José María de Echeandía , governor of Alta California ; in 1840, it was reconfirmed by Governor Juan Alvarado . With the cession of California to the United States after the Mexican–American War , the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851 , a claim was filed by Antonio José Rocha, José Jorge Rocha, and Josefa de la Merced de Jordan with

4922-501: The boundaries of existing pueblos. The grantee was required to build a stone house and to keep at least 2,000 head of stock on each rancho. During the Mexican era (1821–1846), grantees received legal title to the land. In 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California; and by 1828,

5029-807: The boundaries of the ranchos, and many of their names are still in use. For example, Rancho San Diego is now an unincorporated "rural-burb" east of San Diego , and Rancho Bernardo is a suburb in San Diego. Before 1754, only the Spanish Crown could grant lands in Alta California. For several years, the Franciscan missionaries were the only beneficiaries of this policy. Spanish laws allowed four square leagues of land (one league being approximately 4,428 acres (1,792 ha)) to be granted to newly-formed settlements, or pueblos. Settlement on

5136-479: The brief Mexican–American War conflicts in California. Some of the Californios and California Native Americans fought on the side of the U.S. settlers during the conflict, with some joining John Frémont's California Battalion . Before the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, the Californios forced the Mexican appointed governor, Manuel Micheltorena , to flee back to Mexico with most of his troops. Pío Pico ,

5243-507: The burden of attempting to defend their claims was often financially overwhelming. Grantees lost their lands as a result of mortgage default, payment of attorney fees, or payment of other personal debts. Land was also lost as a result of fraud. A sharp decline in cattle prices, the Great Flood of 1862 , and droughts of 1863–1864 also forced many of the overextended rancheros to sell their properties to Americans. They often quickly subdivided

5350-408: The burden of proof of title on landholders. Grantees were required to prove the validity of the grants they had received and establish their exact boundaries. The diseños (maps) available were often hand-drawn and imprecise. Land had until the gold rush been of little value and boundary locations were often quite vague, referring to an oak tree, a cow skull on a pile of rocks, a creek, and in some cases

5457-528: The capital of California from 1777 to 1849. The nearby Carmel Mission , in Carmel, California was moved there after a year in Monterey to keep the mission and its Mission Indians away from the Monterey Presidio soldiers. It was the headquarters of the original Alta California province missions headed by Father-President Junípero Serra from 1770 until his death in 1784—he is buried there. Monterey

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5564-470: The cattle and horse industry in California. About 600 horses and mules and 300 cattle survived the trip. In 1776 about 200 leather-jacketed soldiers, Friars, and colonists with their families moved to what was called Yerba Buena (now San Francisco) to start building a mission and a presidio there. The leather jackets the soldiers wore consisted of several layers of hardened leather and were strong enough body armor to usually stop an Indian arrow. In California

5671-535: The cattle and horses had few enemies and plentiful grass in all but drought years and essentially grew and multiplied as feral animals—doubling roughly every two years. They partially displaced the Tule Elk and pronghorn antelope who had lived there in large herds previously. Anza selected the sites of the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asís in what is now San Francisco; on his way back to Monterey, he sited Mission Santa Clara de Asís and

5778-490: The conflict (U.S. and Mexico). The battlefield memorials attest to the heroic fight and loss on both sides. Most towns in California surrendered without a shot being fired on either side. What little fighting that did occur usually involved small groups of disaffected Californios and small groups of soldiers, marines or militia . In late December, 1846, while Fremont was in Santa Barbara, Bernarda Ruíz de Rodriguez ,

5885-626: The early 1860s and they could not pay back the high cost mortgages (poorly understood by the mostly illiterate ranchers) they had taken out to improve their lifestyle and subsequently lost much or all of their property when they could not be repaid. Californios did not disappear. Some people in the area still have strong identities as Californios. Thousands of people who are descended from the Californios have well-documented genealogies of their families. The developing agricultural economy of California allowed many Californios to continue living in pueblos alongside Native peoples and other Mexicans well into

5992-633: The end of the 1840s saw the close of Mexican control over Alta California, this period also marked the beginning of the rancheros' greatest prosperity. Cattle had been raised primarily for their hides and tallow, as there was no market for large quantities of beef, especially in the days prior to refrigeration, railroads or ice production. Demand dramatically changed with the onset of the Gold Rush , as thousands of miners and other fortune seekers flooded into northern California. These newcomers needed meat, and cattle prices soared with demand. The rancheros enjoyed

6099-542: The fact that "Americans" had taken the title as the majority ethnicity in Northern California. Because the Californio "foreigners" so quickly became a minority, their claims to land protected under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo were ignored when miners overran their land and squatted. Any protests by Californios were quickly put down by hastily formed Euro-American militias, so any legal protection provided by

6206-515: The future state of Oregon 's border with about 30 soldiers and 30 scouts and hunters and took command of the "Republic" in the name of the United States. Frémont began to recruit a militia from among the new settlers living around Sutter's Fort to join with his forces. Many of these settlers had just arrived over the California Trail and many more would continue to arrive after July 1846 when they got to California. The Donner Party were

6313-536: The governor. Soldiers, rancheros, farmers, and those in power coveted the rich coastal lands that the missions controlled. The Mexican government was also fearful about the missions which remained loyal to the Pope and the Catholic Church in Spain . In August 1833, the government secularized all of the missions and their valuable lands, about 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) per mission. The Mexican government allowed

6420-505: The halcyon days of Hispanic California. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the Mexican land grants would be honored. To investigate and confirm titles in California, American officials acquired the provincial records of the Spanish and Mexican governments in Monterey. The new state's leaders soon discovered that the Mexican government had given a number of grants just before the Americans gained control. The Mexican governors had rewarded faithful supporters, and hoped to prevent

6527-574: The help of those in power, acquired the church lands as grants. The Indigenous peoples of the Americas ("Indians"), landless, became virtual slaves of the rancheros. Spain made about 30 concessions between 1784 and 1821. Mexico issued about 270 land grants between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established permanent land-use patterns. The rancho boundaries became the basis for California's land survey system, and are found on modern maps and land titles. The "rancheros" (rancho owners) patterned themselves after

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6634-429: The high expense of fencing large grazing tracts or selling their cattle at ruinous prices. The ranchos established land-use patterns that are still recognizable in contemporary California. Many communities still retain their Spanish rancho name. For example, Rancho Peñasquitos , the first land grant by the Spanish in today's San Diego County, is now a suburb within the city of San Diego. Modern communities often follow

6741-545: The interior or sought work on the new ranchos along with the troops formerly assigned to each mission. They sometimes congregated at rancherías (living areas near a hacienda) where an indigenous Spanish and mestizo culture developed. By 1846, the mission lands and its cattle had passed into the hands of 800 private landowners called rancheros. They collectively owned 8,000,000 acres (3,200,000 ha) of land, in units ranging in size from 4,500 acres (1,800 ha) to 50,000 acres (20,000 ha). They primarily produced hides for

6848-547: The land and sold it to new settlers, who began farming individual plots. A shift in the economic dominance of grain farming over cattle raising was marked by the passage of the California "No-Fence Law" of 1874. This repealed the Trespass Act of 1850, which had required farmers to protect their planted fields from free-ranging cattle. The repeal of the Trespass Act required that ranchers fence stock in, rather than farmers fencing cattle out. The ranchers were faced with either

6955-479: The land into tract housing . Californio The term Californio (historical, regional Spanish for 'Californian') was originally applied by and to the Spanish-speaking residents of Las Californias during the periods of Spanish California and Mexican California , between 1683 and 1848. The first Californios were the children of the early Spanish military expeditions into northern reaches of

7062-419: The land was to be divided into communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots intended for each Indian family. In addition, one half of the herds were to be divided proportionately among the neophyte families. But this purpose was never accomplished. In truth, only a very few Indians of Alta California were educationally or culturally equipped to accept the offering. Instead, they were further exploited by

7169-408: The landed gentry of New Spain, and were primarily devoted to raising cattle and sheep. Their workers included Native Americans who had learned Spanish while living and working at one of the former missions . The ranchos were often based on access to resources necessary for raising cattle, such as water and adequate grazing lands and water. Land development from that time forward has often followed

7276-408: The large ranches that took over the former mission lands and livestock. Many natives who had learned to ride horses and knew a smattering of Spanish were recruited to become vaqueros ( cowboys or cattle herders) that worked the cattle and horses on the large ranchos and did other work. Some of these rancho owners and their hired hands would make up the bulk of the few hundred Californios fighting in

7383-544: The last of the San Diego Ranchos to be undeveloped. Only a few historic structures and an 8,000 square feet (740 m ) ranch house, built in the 1970s, occupy the 13,300 acres (5,400 ha). Benjamin Coates purchased the land in the 1970s after Governor Jerry Brown vetoed a purchase that would have made Guejito a state park . Coates purchased an additional 8,700 acres (3,500 ha) of surrounding land between

7490-623: The last settlers to use the Anza trail as the Quechans (Yumas) closed the trail for the next 40 years shortly after they had passed over it. Almost none of the settlers was españoles (Spanish); the rest had casta (caste) designations such as mestizo , indio , and negro . Some classifications were changed in the California Census of 1790, as often happened in colonial Spanish America. The settlers and escort soldiers who founded

7597-591: The last travelers on the trail in late 1846 when they were caught by early snow while they were trying to get across the Sierra Nevada . Under orders from John D. Sloat , Commodore of the Pacific Squadron , the U.S. Marines and some of the bluejacket sailors from the U.S. Navy sailing ships USS  Savannah with the Cyane and Levant captured the Alta California capital city of Monterey, California on July 7, 1846. The only shots fired were salutes by

7704-430: The missions, presidios , and pueblo (town) dwellers. The mission lands and herds formerly controlled by the missions were usually distributed to the settlers around each mission. Since most had almost no money, the land was distributed or granted free or at very little cost to friends and families of the government officials (or those who paid the highest bribes). The Californio Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo , for example,

7811-781: The new California legislature was ineffective when the threat of violence and lynchings loomed. Even if Californios were able to win their land back in court, often lawyer's fees cost large sums of land that left them with a fraction of their former wealth. Many Latino miners were experienced due to learning a "dry-digging" technique in the Mexican mining state of Sonora . Their early success drew praise and respect from Euro-American miners, they eventually became jealous and used threats and violence to force Mexican workers out of their plots and into less lucrative ones. In addition to these informal forms of discrimination, Anglo miners also worked to establish Jim Crow -like laws to prevent Latinos from mining altogether. In 1851, mob violence as well as

7918-534: The new immigrants from gaining control of the land. Sponsored by California Senator William M. Gwin , in 1851 Congress passed "An Act to Ascertain and Settle Private Land Claims in the State of California". The Act required all holders of Spanish and Mexican land grants to present their titles for confirmation before the Board of California Land Commissioners . Contrary to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, this Act placed

8025-470: The original boundaries of the rancho, based on geographic features and abstract straight lines. Today, most of the original rancho land grants have been dismantled and sold off to become suburbs and rural-burbs. A very small number of ranchos are still owned by descendants of the original owners, retain their original size, or remain undeveloped. Rancho Guejito in San Diego County is considered

8132-424: The padres to keep only the church, priest's quarters, and priest's garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed. The government stipulated that one half the mission lands and property was to be given to neophytes in grants of 33 acres (13 ha) of arable land along with land "in common" sufficient "to pasture their stock." A board of magistrates was to oversee the mission's crops and herds, while

8239-480: The peace agreement she and Fremont had forged. Fremont and two of Pico's officers agreed to the terms for a surrender, and Jose Antonio Carrillo penned Articles of Capitulation in both English and Spanish. The first seven articles were almost entirely from Ruiz's suggestions. The story of Bernarda Ruiz is based largely on two short paragraphs and a footnote in Fremont's memoirs, first published in 1887. Many aspects of

8346-452: The peace. In Pueblo de Los Angeles , the largest city in California with about 3,000 residents, things might have remained peaceful, except that Major Gillespie placed the town under martial law, greatly angering some of the Californios. On September 23, 1846, about 200 Californios under Californio General José María Flores staged a revolt, the Siege of Los Angeles , and exchanged shots with

8453-470: The ports in Mexican California and elsewhere along the Pacific Coast. The only other United States military force in California at the time was a small exploratory expedition led by Lieutenant Colonel John C. Frémont , made up of 30 topographical, surveying, etc. army troops and about 25 men hired as guides and hunters. The Frémont expedition had been dispatched to California, in 1845, from

8560-562: The pueblo San Jose in the Santa Clara Valley but did not initially leave settlers to settle them. Mission San Francisco de Asís (or Mission Dolores), the sixth Spanish mission, was founded on June 29, 1776, by Lieutenant José Joaquin Moraga and Father Francisco Palóu (a companion of Junípero Serra). On November 29, 1777, El Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe (The Town of Saint Joseph of Guadalupe now called simply San Jose)

8667-517: The rancheros and in many cases became virtual slaves. Most mission property was bought by government officials or their wealthy friends, local Californios , individuals of Mexican or Spanish descent who had been born in Alta California. The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after secularization . The former Mission Indians, freed from forced labor on the missions, but without land of their own, and their former way of life destroyed, often had few choices. Some lived with Indian tribes in

8774-574: The ranchos outside presidio , mission, and pueblo boundaries began in 1784. Private individuals applied to the Governor for grants and he issued a few written temporary permits. The Spanish crown retained title. In 1784, Juan José Domínguez received permission from Spanish Governor Pedro Fages to graze his cattle on the 48,000-acre (190 km ) Rancho San Pedro . Two years later the governor received authority to grant tracts not exceeding three square leagues, as long as they did not conflict with

8881-502: The reported amount of gold stolen, they were still hanged. In addition, later in the Gold Rush, Coronel and his group found a rich vein of gold on the American River. When Euro-Americans caught wind of this, they invaded the claim armed and insisted it was their plot, forcing out Coronel and ending his mining career. Accounts like these show the harsh and violent living and working conditions that Californios were faced with during

8988-704: The resulting ' diseño ', a rough, hand-drawn relief map, often only vaguely defined the boundary lines. The grantee could not initially subdivide or rent the land. It had to be used for grazing or cultivation. A residence had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe-walled cabins. Public roads crossing through the property must remain open. The survey and residence requirements could not be enforced. The poorly funded and relatively unorganized government had little interest in land that brought in no taxes. The government instead collected revenue from tariffs assessed on cargo arriving at Monterey, California . The Mexican–American War began on May 13, 1846 with

9095-435: The rigging, and to defend against boarders. They could also be detached for use as armed infantry . In addition, there were some "bluejacket" sailors on each ship that could be detached for shore duty as artillery crews and infantry, leaving the ship functional though short handed. The artillery used were often small naval cannon converted to land use. The Pacific Squadron had orders, in the event of war with Mexico, to seize

9202-527: The rules for establishing land grants were codified in the Mexican Reglamento (Regulation). The Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. The Mexican governors of Alta California gained the power to grant state lands, and many of the Spanish concessions were subsequently patented under Mexican law—frequently to local "friends" of

9309-575: The same American flag originally flown over Los Angeles . Los Angeles was retaken without a fight on January 10, 1847. Following their defeat at the Battle of La Mesa , the Californio government signed the Treaty of Cahuenga , which ended the war in California on January 13, 1847. The main Californio military force, known as the Californio lancers , was disbanded. On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of U.S. territorial California. Some Californios fought on both sides of

9416-433: The same day—June 1, 1863. In some cases particular mission land and livestock were split into parcels and then distributed by drawing lots. In nearly all cases the Indians got very little of the mission land or livestock. Whether any of the proceeds of these sales made their way back to Mexico City is unknown. These lands had been worked by settlers and the much larger settlements of local Native American Kumeyaay peoples on

9523-489: The state government in December, 1851. It was named Benicia for the General's wife, Francisca Benicia Carillo de Vallejo. The General intended that the prospective city be named "Francisca" after his wife, but this name was dropped when the city of Yerba Buena changed its name to "San Francisco" on January 30, 1847. Benicia was the third site selected to serve as the California state capital, and its newly constructed city hall

9630-538: The state religion. They are often also considered Californios, for their adherence to Californio language and culture. In 2004 studies estimated that between 300,000 and 500,000 have ancestry descended from the Spanish and Mexican eras of California. The term "Californio" has different meanings depending on the author or source. According to the Real Academia Española , a Californio is a person native to California. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines

9737-464: The story cannot be verified in primary source materials. On January 13, at a deserted rancho at the north end of Cahuenga Pass (modern-day North Hollywood), John Fremont, Andres Pico and six others signed the Articles of Capitulation, which became known as the Treaty of Cahuenga. Fighting ceased, thus ending the war in California. In 1848, Congress set up a Board of Land Commissioners to determine

9844-476: The terms "Spanish", "Mexican", and sometimes, "colored"; some Californios even intermarried with Mexican Americans (those whose ancestors were refugees escaping the Mexican Revolution in 1910). Alexander V. King has estimated that there were between 300,000 and 500,000 descendants of Californios in 2004. In 1848, gold is discovered at Sutter's Mill , near Coloma , California. This discovery

9951-554: The town without firing a shot. Leaving about 40 men to garrison San Diego, Fremont continued on to Los Angeles where on August 13, with the Navy band playing and colors flying, the combined forces of Stockton and Frémont entered Pueblo de Los Angeles, without a man killed nor shot fired. U.S. Marine Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie , Frémont's second in command, was appointed military commander of Los Angeles with an inadequate force from 30 to 50 California Battalion troops stationed there to keep

10058-481: The towns of San José de Guadalupe , Yerba Buena (San Francisco), Monterey, San Diego and La Reina de Los Ángeles were primarily mestizo and of mixed Negro and Native American ancestry from the province of Sonora y Sinaloa in Mexico. Recruiters in Mexico of the Fernando Rivera y Moncada expedition and other expeditions later, who were charged with founding an agricultural community in Alta California, had

10165-596: The validity of Mexican land grants in California. California Senator William M. Gwin presented a bill that, when approved by the Senate and the House on March 3, 1851, became the California Land Act of 1851 . It stated that unless grantees presented evidence supporting their title within two years, the property would automatically pass back into the public domain . Rancho owners cited the articles VIII and X of

10272-410: The world leather market and largely relied on Indian labor. Bound to the rancho by peonage , the Native Americans were treated as slaves. The Native Americans who worked on the ranchos died at twice the rate that of southern slaves. The boundaries of the Mexican ranchos were provisional. The new owner was required to complete a legal survey that established and marked the boundaries. Even if completed,

10379-507: Was 3 miles (5 km) from the original San Jose pueblo site in neighboring Santa Clara . Mission San José was not founded until 1797, about 20 miles (30 km) north of San Jose in what is now Fremont . The Los Angeles Pobladores ("villagers") is the name given to the 44 original Sonorans—22 adults and 22 children—who settled the Pueblo of Los Angeles in 1781. The pobladores were agricultural families from Sonora , Mexico. They were

10486-465: Was California's capitol from February 11, 1853, to February 25, 1854. Vallejo gave the Rancho Suscol to his oldest daughter, Epifania Guadalupe Vallejo, on April 3, 1851, as a wedding present when she married U.S. Army General John H. Frisbie. It is unknown what he gave as a wedding present when his two daughters Natalia and Jovita married the brothers, Attila Haraszthy and Agoston Haraszthy , on

10593-474: Was extended to all owners of rejected claims. A number of ranchos remained in whole or in part in the sliver of territory of Alta California left to Mexico by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which then became part of Baja California . Rancho Tía Juana (partially in San Diego County, California) lost its claim to title to its land in San Diego County but the balance of the rancho was confirmed by

10700-614: Was first published in Monterey on August 15, 1846, after the city's occupation by the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron on July 7, 1846. Late in 1775, Colonel Juan Bautista de Anza led an overland expedition over the Gila River trail he had discovered in 1774 to bring colonists from Sonora New Spain (Mexico) to California to settle two missions , one presidio , and one pueblo (town). Anza led 240 friars, soldiers and colonists with their families. They started out with 695 horses and mules and 385 Texas Longhorn bulls and cows—starting

10807-485: Was founded by José Joaquín Moraga on the first pueblo -town not associated with a mission or a military post ( presidio ) in Alta California. The original San Jose settlers were part of the original group of 200 settlers and soldiers that had originally settled in Yerba Buena (San Francisco). Mission Santa Clara , founded in 1777, was the eighth mission founded and closest mission to San Jose. Mission Santa Clara

10914-472: Was made only nine days before the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, which turned over California to the United States as a result of the Mexican–American War. From the end of 1849 to the end of 1852, the population in California increased from 107,000 to 264,000 due to the California Gold Rush . In early 1849, approximately 6,000 Mexicans, many of whom were Californios who remained after

11021-488: Was named the Salt Lake Oil Field after the company that drilled for him. Arthur's son, Earl Gilmore, built Gilmore Stadium next to Gilmore Field . 34°04′12″N 118°18′00″W  /  34.070°N 118.300°W  / 34.070; -118.300 Ranchos of California In Alta California (now known as California ) and Baja California , ranchos were concessions and land grants made by

11128-555: Was originally the only port of entry for all taxable goods in California. All ships were supposed to clear through Monterey and pay the roughly 42% tariff (customs duties on imported goods before trading anywhere else in Alta California). The oldest governmental building in the state is the Monterey Custom House and California's Historic Landmark Number One. The Californian , California's oldest newspaper,

11235-423: Was reputed to be the richest man in California before the California Gold Rush . Vallejo oversaw the secularization of Mission San Francisco Solano and the distributions of its roughly 1,000,000 acres (4,000 km ). He founded the towns of Sonoma and Petaluma, California , owned Mare Island and the future town site of Benicia, California , and was granted the 66,622-acre (269.61 km ) Rancho Petaluma ,

11342-485: Was the gente de razón , a term literally meaning "people of reason". It designated peoples who were culturally Hispanic (that is, they were not living in traditional Native American communities) and had adopted Christianity . This served to distinguish the Mexican Indio settlers and converted Californian Indios from the barbaro (barbarian) Californian Native Americans, who had not converted or become part of

11449-542: Was the largest and richest landowner in Mexico and its provinces. In California the situation was even more pronounced, as the Franciscan friars held over 90% of all settled property, supposedly in trust for the mission Indians . In 1834, secularization laws that voided the mission control of lands in the northern settlements under Mexican rule were enacted. The missions directed thousands of Indians in herding livestock, growing crops and orchards, weaving cloth, etc. for

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