117-730: The California Botanic Garden (formerly the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden ) is a botanical garden in Claremont, California , in the United States, just south of the San Gabriel foothills. The garden, at 86 acres (35 ha ), is the largest botanic garden in the state dedicated to California native plants . It contains some 70,000 native Californian plants, representing 2,000 native species, hybrids and cultivars . The seed bank has embryos for
234-416: A volcanic origin. He also deals with precious stones, emeralds , amethysts , onyx , jasper , etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumably lapis lazuli . He knew that pearls came from shellfish , that coral came from India, and speaks of the fossilized remains of organic life. He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as
351-491: A botanical garden is defined by its scientific or academic connection, then the first true botanical gardens were established with the revival of learning that occurred in the European Renaissance . These were secular gardens attached to universities and medical schools, used as resources for teaching and research. The superintendents of these gardens were often professors of botany with international reputations,
468-403: A department of an educational institution, it may be related to a teaching program. In any case, it exists for scientific ends and is not to be restricted or diverted by other demands. It is not merely a landscaped or ornamental garden, although it may be artistic, nor is it an experiment station or yet a park with labels on the plants. The essential element is the intention of the enterprise, which
585-426: A different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings. Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Simplicius . Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric , since in his book on
702-528: A factor that probably contributed to the creation of botany as an independent discipline rather than a descriptive adjunct to medicine. The botanical gardens of Southern Europe were associated with university faculties of medicine and were founded in Italy at Orto botanico di Pisa (1544), Orto botanico di Padova (1545), Orto Botanico di Firenze (1545), Orto Botanico dell'Università di Pavia (1558) and Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna (1568). Here
819-494: A happiness resting merely upon virtue, or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality . He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend, and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the Callisthenes , "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom" ( vitam regit fortuna non sapientia ). That in
936-432: A manner of which Aristotle would not have approved. Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do. The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find
1053-596: A native garden on her rancho in Orange County . The garden relocated to Claremont in 1951. The facility, run by a non-profit organization , was open to the public with free admission for 58 years; in 2009 an admission fee was implemented. In 2019, the garden was renamed "California Botanic Garden" to better represent the contents of its collections. 34°06′42″N 117°42′58″W / 34.11167°N 117.71611°W / 34.11167; -117.71611 This Los Angeles County, California –related article
1170-455: A necessary consequence of all activity. In ethics , he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue . Most of the biographical information about Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius ' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers , written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus's time. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos . His given name
1287-538: A period of prosperity when the city was a trading centre for the Dutch East India Company . Other gardens were constructed in Brazil ( Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden , 1808), Sri Lanka ( Botanic Gardens of Peradeniya , 1821 and on a site dating back to 1371), Indonesia ( Bogor Botanical Gardens , 1817 and Kebun Raya Cibodas , 1852), and Singapore ( Singapore Botanical Gardens , 1822). These had
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#17327729116631404-608: A profound effect on the economy of the countries, especially in relation to the foods and medicines introduced. The importation of rubber trees to the Singapore Botanic Garden initiated the important rubber industry of the Malay Peninsula . At this time also, teak and tea were introduced to India and breadfruit , pepper and starfruit to the Caribbean. Included in the charter of these gardens
1521-783: A ready market in post-Renaissance Rome. This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani , Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from
1638-512: A source for other lapidaries until at least the Renaissance , Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite , which both have the power of attraction. Theophrastus describes different marbles ; mentions coal , which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the various metal ores ; and knew that pumice stones had
1755-485: A spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it. Other Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus , Aristoxenus , and especially Strato , developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian doctrine. Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where
1872-457: A wide influence on both botany and horticulture, as plants poured into it from around the world. The garden's golden age came in the 18th century, when it became the world's most richly stocked botanical garden. Its seed-exchange programme was established in 1682 and still continues today. With the increase in maritime trade , ever more plants were being brought back to Europe as trophies from distant lands, and these were triumphantly displayed in
1989-470: A year. Historically, botanical gardens exchanged plants through the publication of seed lists (these were called Latin : Indices Seminae in the 18th century). This was a means of transferring both plants and information between botanical gardens. This system continues today, although the possibility of genetic piracy and the transmission of invasive species has received greater attention in recent times. The International Association of Botanic Gardens
2106-610: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a garden in the United States is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Botanical garden A botanical garden or botanic garden is a garden with a documented collection of living plants for the purpose of scientific research, conservation, display, and education. It is their mandate as a botanical garden that plants are labelled with their botanical names . It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and other succulent plants , herb gardens , plants from particular parts of
2223-488: Is closely linked to the history of botany itself. The botanical gardens of the 16th and 17th centuries were medicinal gardens, but the idea of a botanical garden changed to encompass displays of the beautiful, strange, new and sometimes economically important plant trophies being returned from the European colonies and other distant lands. Later, in the 18th century, they became more educational in function, demonstrating
2340-523: Is inside the Parque La Carolina is a 165.5-acre (670,000 m ) park in the centre of the Quito central business district , bordered by the avenues Río Amazonas, de los Shyris, Naciones Unidas, Eloy Alfaro, and de la República. The botanical garden of Quito is a park, a botanical garden, an arboretum and greenhouses of 18,600 square meters that is planned to increase, maintain the plants of
2457-669: Is respected worldwide for the published work of its scientists, the education of horticultural students, its public programmes, and the scientific underpinning of its horticulture. In 1728, John Bartram founded Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia , one of the continent's first botanical gardens. The garden is now managed as a historical site that includes a few original and many modern specimens as well as extensive archives and restored historical farm buildings. The large number of plants needing description were often listed in garden catalogues; and at this time Carl Linnaeus established
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#17327729116632574-725: Is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of zoology , of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books On Stones , his Enquiry into Plants , and On the Causes of Plants (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the State ( Πολιτικῶν and Πολιτικοῦ ), we find quoted various treatises on Education ( Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Περὶ παιδείας ), on Royalty ( Περὶ βασιλείας , Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Πρὸς Κάσανδρον περὶ βασιλείας ), on
2691-1101: Is the acquisition and dissemination of botanical knowledge. A contemporary botanic garden is a strictly protected green area, where a managing organization creates landscaped gardens and holds documented collections of living plants and/or preserved plant accessions containing functional units of heredity of actual or potential value for purposes such as scientific research, education, public display, conservation, sustainable use, tourism and recreational activities, production of marketable plant-based products and services for improvement of human well-being. Worldwide, there are now about 1800 botanical gardens and arboreta in about 150 countries (mostly in temperate regions) of which about 550 are in Europe (150 of which are in Russia ), 200 in North America , and an increasing number in East Asia. These gardens attract about 300 million visitors
2808-546: Is to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education, although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each particular garden. The staff will normally include botanists as well as gardeners. Many botanical gardens offer diploma/certificate programs in horticulture, botany and taxonomy. There are many internship opportunities offered to aspiring horticulturists. As well as opportunities for students/researchers to use
2925-639: Is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification. He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena. In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God , and had understood it at one time as Heaven , at another an (enlivening) breath ( pneuma ). Theophrastus did not allow
3042-512: Is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus. It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science , with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants. Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2. Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where Aristotle began teaching in
3159-468: The Academics , and a sketch of the political doctrine of Plato . He studied general history, as we know from Plutarch 's lives of Lycurgus , Solon , Aristides , Pericles , Nicias , Alcibiades , Lysander , Agesilaus , and Demosthenes , which were probably borrowed from the work on Lives ( Περὶ βίων ). But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in natural history . This
3276-702: The Best State ( Περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης πολιτείας ), on Political Morals ( Πολιτικῶν ἐθῶν ), and particularly his works on the Laws ( Νόμων κατὰ στοιχεῖον , Νόμων ἐπιτομῆς and Περὶ νόμων ), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of Politics , and must have been similar to it. He also wrote on oratory and poetry . Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical writings, as also in his metaphysical investigations of motion ,
3393-670: The Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna and Hortus Botanicus Leiden . Many plants were being collected from the Near East , especially bulbous plants from Turkey . Clusius laid the foundations of Dutch tulip breeding and the bulb industry, and he helped create one of the earliest formal botanical gardens of Europe at Leyden where his detailed planting lists have made it possible to recreate this garden near its original site. The hortus medicus of Leyden in 1601
3510-554: The Characters . George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus's Characters , most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such . Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology. A treatise On Sense Perception ( Περὶ αἰσθήσεων ) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding
3627-728: The Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library , which was not made known to J. G. Schneider , who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . His book Characters ( Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες ) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing . The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to
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3744-822: The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by producing a range resources and publications, and by organizing international conferences and conservation programs. Communication also happens regionally. In the United States, there is the American Public Gardens Association (formerly the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta), and in Australasia there is the Botanic Gardens of Australia and New Zealand (BGANZ). The history of botanical gardens
3861-842: The Government Hill in Victoria City , Hong Kong Island . The Koishikawa Botanical Garden in Tokyo, with its origin going back to the Tokugawa shogunate 's ownership, became in 1877 part of the Tokyo Imperial University . In Sri Lanka major botanical gardens include the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya (formally established in 1843), Hakgala Botanical Gardens (1861) and Henarathgoda Botanical Garden (1876). Jardín Botánico de Quito
3978-528: The Lyceum . When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head ( scholarch ) of the Peripatetic school , a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus , with whom he was close. Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and
4095-708: The Natural Philosophy ( Περὶ φύσεως , Περὶ φυσικῶν , Φυσικῶν and others), on Heaven ( Περὶ οὐρανοῦ ), and on Meteorological Phenomena ( Τῆς μεταρσιολεσχίας and Μεταρσιολογικῶν ). In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the Warm and the Cold ( Περὶ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ ), on Water ( Περὶ ὕδατος ), Fire ( Περὶ πυρóς ), the Sea ( Περὶ θαλάττης ), on Coagulation and Melting ( Περὶ πήξεων καὶ τήξεων ), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life, and on
4212-1001: The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens , 1818; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne , 1845; Adelaide Botanic Gardens , 1854; and Brisbane Botanic Gardens , 1855. These were established essentially as colonial gardens of economic botany and acclimatisation. The Auburn Botanical Gardens , 1977, located in Sydney's western suburbs , are one of the popular and diverse botanical gardens in the Greater Western Sydney area. Major botanical gardens in New Zealand include Dunedin Botanic Gardens , 1863; Christchurch Botanic Gardens , 1863; Ōtari-Wilton's Bush , 1926; and Wellington Botanic Gardens , 1868. Hong Kong Botanic Gardens , 1871 (renamed Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens in 1975), up from
4329-504: The Soul ( Περὶ ψυχῆς ), on Experience ( Περὶ ἐμπειρίας ) and On Sense Perception (also known as On the Senses ; Περὶ αἰσθήσεων ). Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers Anaximenes , Anaxagoras , Empedocles , Archelaus , Diogenes of Apollonia , Democritus , which were made use of by Simplicius ; and also on Xenocrates , against
4446-530: The Topica of Theophrastus. Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas, which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle's Metaphysics . Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires principles , and first and foremost, motion , as the basis of all change. Denying the substance of space , he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as
4563-520: The Winds , and on the signs of Waters , Winds , and Storms . Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842–62) and in Hermann Usener 's Analecta Theophrastea . The Metaphysics (anachronistic Greek title: Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά ), in nine chapters (also known as On First Principles ),
4680-694: The soul , and God . Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the Problems that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle, and commentaries, partly dialogue , to which probably belonged the Erotikos ( Ἐρωτικός ), Megacles ( Μεγακλῆς ), Callisthenes ( Καλλισθένης ), and Megarikos ( Μεγαρικός ), and letters, partly books on mathematical sciences and their history. Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of
4797-506: The "Father of Botany". There is some debate among science historians whether this garden was ordered and scientific enough to be considered "botanical", and suggest it more appropriate to attribute the earliest known botanical garden in Europe to the botanist and pharmacologist Antonius Castor , mentioned by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century. Though these ancient gardens shared some of
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4914-414: The "father of botany" for his groundbreaking works " Enquiry into Plants " ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία , romanized : Peri phytōn historia ) and "On the Causes of Plants," ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν , romanized : Peri aitiōn phytikōn ) Theophrastus established the foundations of botanical science . His given name was Tyrtamos ( Ancient Greek : Τύρταμος );
5031-408: The 16th and 17th centuries, the first plants were being imported to these major Western European gardens from Eastern Europe and nearby Asia (which provided many bulbs ), and these found a place in the new gardens, where they could be conveniently studied by the plant experts of the day. For example, Asian introductions were described by Carolus Clusius (1526–1609), who was director, in turn, of
5148-685: The British and Dutch, in India , South-east Asia and the Caribbean . This was also the time of Sir Joseph Banks 's botanical collections during Captain James Cook 's circumnavigations of the planet and his explorations of Oceania , which formed the last phase of plant introduction on a grand scale. There are currently about 230 tropical botanical gardens with a concentration in southern and south-eastern Asia. The first botanical garden founded in
5265-427: The Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although
5382-439: The Causes of Plants , were an important influence on Renaissance science . There are also surviving works On Moral Characters , On Sense Perception , and On Stones , as well as fragments on Physics and Metaphysics . In philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotle's work on logic . He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion, and motion as
5499-618: The Chelsea Physic Garden to the Province of Georgia in 1732 and tea into India by Calcutta Botanic Garden. The transfer of germplasm between the temperate and tropical botanical gardens was undoubtedly responsible for the range of agricultural crops currently used in several regions of the tropics. The first botanical gardens in Australia were founded early in the 19th century. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney , 1816;
5616-521: The Christian conquest in 1085 CE. Ibn Bassal then founded a garden in Seville, most of its plants being collected on a botanical expedition that included Morocco, Persia, Sicily, and Egypt. The medical school of Montpelier was also founded by Spanish Arab physicians, and by 1250 CE, it included a physic garden, but the site was not given botanic garden status until 1593. Botanical gardens, in
5733-530: The Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great : to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the cotton-plant , banyan , pepper , cinnamon , myrrh , and frankincense . Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants
5850-1023: The Netherlands ( Hortus Botanicus Leiden , 1590; Hortus Botanicus (Amsterdam) , 1638), Germany ( Alter Botanischer Garten Tübingen , 1535; Leipzig Botanical Garden , 1580; Botanischer Garten Jena , 1586; Botanischer Garten Heidelberg , 1593; Herrenhäuser Gärten, Hanover , 1666; Botanischer Garten der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel , 1669; Botanical Garden in Berlin , 1672), Switzerland ( Old Botanical Garden, Zürich , 1560; Basel , 1589); England ( University of Oxford Botanic Garden , 1621; Chelsea Physic Garden , 1673); Scotland ( Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh , 1670); and in France ( Jardin des plantes de Montpellier , 1593; Faculty of Medicine Garden, Paris, 1597; Jardin des Plantes , Paris, 1635), Denmark ( University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden , 1600); Sweden ( Uppsala University , 1655). During
5967-611: The Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants. After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus . The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, including biology , physics , ethics and metaphysics . His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On
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#17327729116636084-743: The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (1759) and Orotava Acclimatization Garden (in Spanish) , Tenerife (1788) and the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid (1755) were set up to cultivate new species returned from expeditions to the tropics; they also helped found new tropical botanical gardens. From the 1770s, following the example of the French and Spanish , amateur collectors were supplemented by official horticultural and botanical plant hunters. These botanical gardens were boosted by
6201-534: The Royal Garden set aside as a physic garden. William Aiton (1741–1793), the first curator, was taught by garden chronicler Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden whose son Charles became first curator of the original Cambridge Botanic Garden (1762). In 1759, the "Physick Garden" was planted, and by 1767, it was claimed that "the Exotick Garden is by far the richest in Europe". Gardens such as
6318-630: The Spanish invaders, not only with their appearance, but also because the indigenous Aztecs employed many more medicinal plants than did the classical world of Europe. Early medieval gardens in Islamic Spain resembled botanic gardens of the future, an example being the 11th-century Huerta del Rey garden of physician and author Ibn Wafid (999–1075 CE) in Toledo . This was later taken over by garden chronicler Ibn Bassal (fl. 1085 CE) until
6435-486: The Vatican grounds in 1447, for a garden of medicinal plants that were used to promote the teaching of botany, and this was a forerunner to the University gardens at Padua and Pisa established in the 1540s. Certainly the founding of many early botanic gardens was instigated by members of the medical profession. In the 17th century, botanical gardens began their contribution to a deeper scientific curiosity about plants. If
6552-413: The best treatises on that doctrine. In different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science . To this, too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics , that the principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus. For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from
6669-408: The botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks. "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity". The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to
6786-528: The bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch. A world is named Theophrastus in the 2014 Firefly graphic novel Serenity: Leaves on the Wind . Theodor Geisel used the name "Theophrastus" as the given name of his pen-name alter ego, Dr. Seuss . A board game named Theophrastus
6903-481: The characteristics of present-day botanical gardens, the forerunners of modern botanical gardens are generally regarded as being the medieval monastic physic gardens that originated after the decline of the Roman Empire at the time of Emperor Charlemagne (742–789 CE). These contained a hortus , a garden used mostly for vegetables, and another section set aside for specially labelled medicinal plants and this
7020-442: The classification systems being developed by botanists in the gardens' museums and herbaria. Botanical gardens had now become scientific collections, as botanists published their descriptions of the new exotic plants, and these were also recorded for posterity in detail by superb botanical illustrations. In this century, botanical gardens effectively dropped their medicinal function in favour of scientific and aesthetic priorities, and
7137-405: The collection for their studies. The origin of modern botanical gardens is generally traced to the appointment of botany professors to the medical faculties of universities in 16th-century Renaissance Italy, which also entailed curating a medicinal garden . However, the objectives, content, and audience of today's botanic gardens more closely resembles that of the grandiose gardens of antiquity and
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#17327729116637254-530: The complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him. He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave." He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus . From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of
7371-416: The country (Ecuador is among the 17 richest countries in the world in the native species, a study on this matter). The Ecuadorian flora classified, determines the existence of 17,000 species) Theophrastus Theophrastus ( / ˌ θ iː . ə ˈ f r æ s t ə s / ; Ancient Greek : Θεόφραστος , romanized : Theophrastos , lit. 'godly phrased'; c. 371 – c. 287 BC)
7488-410: The definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it. Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life, he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in
7605-428: The educational garden of Theophrastus in the Lyceum of ancient Athens. The early concern with medicinal plants changed in the 17th century to an interest in the new plant imports from explorations outside Europe as botany gradually established its independence from medicine. In the 18th century, systems of nomenclature and classification were devised by botanists working in the herbaria and universities associated with
7722-423: The elements of speech , he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions ( κυρία λέξις kuria lexis ) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions ( πάθη pathe ) of speech. He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech ( σχίσις schisis ) to things ( πράγματα pragmata ) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to
7839-413: The end of the 18th century, Kew, under the directorship of Sir Joseph Banks , enjoyed a golden age of plant hunting, sending out collectors to the South African Cape , Australia , Chile , China , Ceylon , Brazil , and elsewhere, and acting as "the great botanical exchange house of the British Empire ". From its earliest days to the present, Kew has in many ways exemplified botanic garden ideals, and
7956-513: The first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of tourmaline , which made mineralogists of the time associate the lyngurium with it. Lyngurium is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar to amber , capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties. The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in
8073-456: The flora being sent back to Europe from various European colonies around the globe . At this time, British horticulturalists were importing many woody plants from Britain's colonies in North America , and the popularity of horticulture had increased enormously, encouraged by the horticultural and botanical collecting expeditions overseas fostered by the directorship of Sir William Jackson Hooker and his keen interest in economic botany . At
8190-434: The gardens, these systems often being displayed in the gardens as educational "order beds ". With the rapid expansion of European colonies around the globe in the late 18th century, botanic gardens were established in the tropics, and economic botany became a focus with the hub at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , near London. Over the years, botanical gardens, as cultural and scientific organisations, have responded to
8307-488: The interests of botany and horticulture . Nowadays, most botanical gardens display a mix of the themes mentioned and more; having a strong connection with the general public, there is the opportunity to provide visitors with information relating to the environmental issues being faced at the start of the 21st century, especially those relating to plant conservation and sustainability . The "New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening" (1999) points out that among
8424-418: The investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in his Metaphysics . He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution: With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it
8541-599: The latest plant classification systems devised by botanists working in the associated herbaria as they tried to order these new treasures. Then, in the 19th and 20th centuries, the trend was towards a combination of specialist and eclectic collections demonstrating many aspects of both horticulture and botany. The idea of "scientific" gardens used specifically for the study of plants dates back to antiquity. Near-eastern royal gardens set aside for economic use or display and containing at least some plants gained by special collecting trips or military campaigns abroad, are known from
8658-413: The latter is sometimes mentioned. A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work. Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants. Theophrastus observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on
8775-400: The latter. He wrote at length on the unity of judgment , on the different kinds of negation, and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity. In his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms, partly in
8892-458: The life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way? He recognised no activity without motion, and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment ( kriseis ) and contemplation to spiritual motion. The idea of
9009-497: The mere arrangement and position ( taxis and thesis ) of bodies. Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion. He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment. He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on
9126-464: The minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as ochre ; and for the manufacture of plaster . Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines , presumably of Laurium near Athens – the basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to gold mines . The Laurium silver mines, which were
9243-500: The mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work On Mining , which – like most of his writings – is a lost work . Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of
9360-456: The modern sense, developed from physic gardens , whose main purpose was to cultivate herbs for medical use as well as research and experimentation. Such gardens have a long history. In Europe, for example, Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE) is said to have had a physic garden in the Lyceum at Athens, which was used for educational purposes and for the study of botany, and this was inherited, or possibly set up, by his pupil Theophrastus ,
9477-607: The most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages, the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, following Linnaeus , call him the "father of botany ". The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc. The first book deals with
9594-453: The nickname Theophrastus ("divine speaker") was reputedly given to him by Aristotle in recognition of his eloquent style. He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school . After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus in his writings. When Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as head of the Lyceum . Theophrastus presided over
9711-446: The one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle. He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself ( ateles ), of that which only potentially exists, but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular: Surely, then, if
9828-412: The originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for 35 years, and died at age 85, according to Diogenes. He is said to have remarked, "We die just when we are beginning to live". Under his guidance,
9945-469: The parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums , resins , etc. On
10062-724: The physicians (referred to in English as apothecaries ) delivered lectures on the Mediterranean "simples" or " officinals " that were being cultivated in the grounds. Student education was no doubt stimulated by the relatively recent advent of printing and the publication of the first herbals. All of these botanical gardens still exist, mostly in their original locations. The tradition of these Italian gardens passed into Spain Botanical Garden of Valencia , 1567) and Northern Europe , where similar gardens were established in
10179-447: The private estates of the wealthy, in commercial nurseries , and in the public botanical gardens. Heated conservatories called " orangeries ", such as the one at Kew, became a feature of many botanical gardens. Industrial expansion in Europe and North America resulted in new building skills, so plants sensitive to cold were kept over winter in progressively elaborate and expensive heated conservatories and glasshouses. The 18th century
10296-442: The proof of them, partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion. Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them; and further, with hypothetical conclusions. For the doctrine of proof , Galen quotes the second Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as
10413-523: The property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea from c. 413 BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo ( c. 64 BCE to c. 24 CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias ( c. 110 to c. 180 ) speaks of
10530-557: The public for the purposes of recreation, education and research." The term tends to be used somewhat differently in different parts of the world. For example a large woodland garden with a good collection of rhododendron and other flowering tree and shrub species is very likely to present itself as a "botanical garden" if it is located in the US, but very unlikely to do so if in the UK (unless it also contains other relevant features). Very few of
10647-824: The purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education." The following definition was produced by staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium of Cornell University in 1976. It covers in some detail the many functions and activities generally associated with botanical gardens: A botanical garden is a controlled and staffed institution for the maintenance of a living collection of plants under scientific management for purposes of education and research, together with such libraries, herbaria, laboratories, and museums as are essential to its particular undertakings. Each botanical garden naturally develops its own special fields of interests depending on its personnel, location, extent, available funds, and
10764-544: The rubber plant was introduced to Singapore. Especially in the tropics, the larger gardens were frequently associated with a herbarium and museum of economy. The Botanical Garden of Peradeniya had considerable influence on the development of agriculture in Ceylon where the Para rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) was introduced from Kew, which had itself imported the plant from South America . Other examples include cotton from
10881-596: The same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are lost works . Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second Analytic ( Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων and Ἀναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων ). He had also written books on Topics ( Ἀνηγμένων τόπων , Τοπικῶν and Τὰ πρὸ τῶν τόπων ); on the Analysis of Syllogisms ( Περὶ ἀναλύσεως συλλογισμῶν and Περὶ συλλογισμῶν λύσεως ), on Sophisms ( Σοφισμάτων ) and on Affirmation and Denial ( Περὶ καταφάσεως καὶ ἀποφάσεως ) as well as on
10998-415: The school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2,000 students, Diogenes affirms —and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip , Cassander , and Ptolemy , and by
11115-743: The second millennium BCE in ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Crete , Mexico and China . In about 2800 BCE, the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung sent collectors to distant regions searching for plants with economic or medicinal value. It has also been suggested that the Spanish colonization of Mesoamerica influenced the history of the botanical garden as gardens in Tenochtitlan established by king Nezahualcoyotl , also gardens in Chalco (altépetl) and elsewhere, greatly impressed
11232-428: The sites used for the UK's dispersed National Plant Collection , usually holding large collections of a particular taxonomic group, would call themselves "botanic gardens". This has been further reduced by Botanic Gardens Conservation International to the following definition which "encompasses the spirit of a true botanic garden": "A botanic garden is an institution holding documented collections of living plants for
11349-406: The subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic, although he did describe lyngurium , a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the lynx (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century. It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus
11466-408: The subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century. With this type of work we may connect the fragments on Smells , on Fatigue , on Dizziness , on Sweat , on Swooning , on Palsy , and on Honey . Fragments of a History of Physics ( Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν ) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on Fire , on
11583-404: The system of binomial nomenclature which greatly facilitated the listing process. Names of plants were authenticated by dried plant specimens mounted on card (a hortus siccus or garden of dried plants) that were stored in buildings called herbaria , these taxonomic research institutions being frequently associated with the botanical gardens, many of which by then had "order beds" to display
11700-417: The term "botanic garden" came to be more closely associated with the herbarium, library (and later laboratories) housed there than with the living collections – on which little research was undertaken. The late 18th and early 19th centuries were marked by the establishment of tropical botanical gardens as a tool of colonial expansion (for trade and commerce and, secondarily, science) mainly by
11817-401: The terms of its charter. It may include greenhouses, test grounds, an herbarium, an arboretum, and other departments. It maintains a scientific as well as a plant-growing staff, and publication is one of its major modes of expression. This broad outline is then expanded: The botanic garden may be an independent institution, a governmental operation, or affiliated to a college or university. If
11934-497: The thousands of rare plants. The garden has an active research department, specializing in systematic botany and floristics . The herbarium of Pomona College , housed at the garden, was transferred from the college in 1996. It holds over 1,200,000 specimens. The journal Aliso is published by the organization semiannually. The garden offers graduate degrees in botany through Claremont Graduate University . The garden originated in 1927 when Susanna Bixby Bryant established
12051-847: The tropics was the Pamplemousses Botanical Garden in Mauritius , established in 1735 to provide food for ships using the port, but later trialling and distributing many plants of economic importance. This was followed by the West Indies ( Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Botanic Gardens , 1764) and in 1786 by the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Botanical Garden in Calcutta , India founded during
12168-519: The various kinds of organizations known as botanical gardens, there are many that are in modern times public gardens with little scientific activity, and it cited a tighter definition published by the World Wildlife Fund and IUCN when launching the "Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy" in 1989: "A botanic garden is a garden containing scientifically ordered and maintained collections of plants, usually documented and labelled, and open to
12285-437: The view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628), and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated
12402-428: The well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants. The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, Enquiry into Plants ( Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία , generally known as Historia Plantarum ), and On the Causes of Plants ( Greek : Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν , Latin : De causis plantarum ), which constitute
12519-696: The world, and so on; there may be glasshouses or shadehouses , again with special collections such as tropical plants , alpine plants , or other exotic plants that are not native to that region. Most are at least partly open to the public, and may offer guided tours, public programming such as workshops, courses, educational displays, art exhibitions , book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and other entertainment. Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and often have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role
12636-596: Was Tyrtamus ( Τύρταμος ), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from Ancient Greek Θεός 'god' and φράζειν 'to phrase', i.e. divine expression). After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens , where he may have studied under Plato . He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it
12753-439: Was a perfect square divided into quarters for the four continents, but by 1720, though, it was a rambling system of beds, struggling to contain the novelties rushing in, and it became better known as the hortus academicus . His Exoticorum libri decem (1605) is an important survey of exotic plants and animals that is still consulted today. The inclusion of new plant introductions in botanic gardens meant their scientific role
12870-550: Was an ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist . A native of Eresos in Lesbos , he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum , the Peripatetic school of philosophy in Athens . Theophrastus wrote numerous treatises across all areas of philosophy, working to support, improve, expand, and develop the Aristotelian system . He made significant contributions to various fields, including ethics , metaphysics , botany , and natural history . Often considered
12987-558: Was called the herbularis or hortus medicus —more generally known as a physic garden, and a viridarium or orchard. These gardens were probably given impetus when Charlemagne issued a capitulary , the Capitulary de Villis, which listed 73 herbs to be used in the physic gardens of his dominions. Many of these were found in British gardens even though they only occurred naturally in continental Europe, demonstrating earlier plant introduction. Pope Nicholas V set aside part of
13104-591: Was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos, Metaphysica , Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, Metaphysica , Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus , especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it. In his treatise On Stones ( Περὶ λίθων ), which would become
13221-414: Was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza , at Treviso, 1483; in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared. Christian Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality,
13338-556: Was formed in 1954 as a worldwide organisation affiliated to the International Union of Biological Sciences . More recently, coordination has also been provided by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which has the mission "To mobilise botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet". BGCI has over 700 members – mostly botanic gardens – in 118 countries, and strongly supports
13455-643: Was marked by introductions from the Cape of South Africa – including ericas , geraniums , pelargoniums , succulents, and proteaceous plants – while the Dutch trade with the Dutch East Indies resulted in a golden era for the Leiden and Amsterdam botanical gardens and a boom in the construction of conservatories. The Royal Gardens at Kew were founded in 1759, initially as part of
13572-658: Was now widening, as botany gradually asserted its independence from medicine. In the mid to late 17th century, the Paris Jardin des Plantes was a centre of interest with the greatest number of new introductions to attract the public. In England , the Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 as the "Garden of the Society of Apothecaries". The Chelsea garden had heated greenhouses , and in 1723 appointed Philip Miller (1691–1771) as head gardener . He had
13689-442: Was the investigation of the local flora for its economic potential to both the colonists and the local people. Many crop plants were introduced by or through these gardens – often in association with European botanical gardens such as Kew or Amsterdam – and included cloves , tea , coffee , breadfruit, cinchona , sugar , cotton , palm oil and Theobroma cacao (for chocolate). During these times,
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