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Eastern Lombard is a group of closely related variants of Lombard , a Gallo-Italic language spoken in Lombardy , mainly in the provinces of Bergamo , Brescia and Mantua , in the area around Cremona and in parts of Trentino . Its main variants are Bergamasque and Brescian.

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50-577: Remedello ( Brescian : Remedél ) is a comune in the Italian province of Brescia , in Lombardy . This article on a location in the Province of Brescia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Brescian In Italian-speaking contexts, Eastern Lombard is often called as dialetti ( lit. ' dialects ' ), understood to mean not a variety of Italian , but

100-412: A chart of possible articulations. A precise vocabulary of compounding the two places of articulation is sometimes seen. However, it is usually reduced to the passive articulation, which is generally sufficient. Thus dorsal–palatal , dorsal–velar , and dorsal–uvular are usually just called "palatal", "velar", and "uvular". If there is ambiguity, additional terms have been invented, so subapical–palatal

150-508: A cold as there had never been before. The she-blackbird did not know how to cope with her brood in the nest, so she sheltered in the hood of a chimney, and the smoke turned all the birds black; so when they came out the blackbirds did not have white feathers anymore, but black ones. And January, very happy, said: "This time it was me that fooled you, blackbird: you were white and I turned you black, this will teach you to stop teasing me." Place of articulation In articulatory phonetics ,

200-465: A consonant may be lateral alveolar, like English /l/ (the tongue contacts the alveolar ridge, but allows air to flow off to the side), or lateral palatal, like Castilian Spanish ll /ʎ/ . Some Indigenous Australian languages contrast dental, alveolar, retroflex, and palatal laterals, and many Native American languages have lateral fricatives and affricates as well. Some languages have consonants with two simultaneous places of articulation, which

250-517: A further variant [ruˈba] is also possible, though in this case, a difference is noticed by speakers but it is considered a local variant and no loss of intelligibility results. The sounds [e] and [ɛ] also no longer contrast in unstressed syllables, and therefore the word vedèl ("calf") can be pronounced [veˈdɛl] or [vɛˈdɛl] . However, when affected by vowel harmony (see below ), the unstressed sounds [e] / [ɛ] , [o] / [ɔ] , and [ø] become [i] , [u] , and [y] respectively. In conclusion, it

300-814: A laud known as Mayor gremeza il mund no pothevela ancor aver , a manuscript found in Bovegno ( Trompia valley), and dating from the fourteenth century. Today, literary production has increased in volume and mainly consists in light comedies and poem collections (Angelo Canossi is an example for poetry in the Brescian dialect). The following tale is in Brescian: I mèrli 'na ólta i ghìa le pène biànche, ma chèl envéren lé l'éra stàt en bèl envéren e lé, la mèrla, la gà dìt: "Zenér de la màla gràpa, per tò despèt gó i uzilì 'ndela gnàta." A lü, 'l Zenér, gh'è nìt adòs 'n pó de ràbia, e 'l gà dìt: "Spèta, mèrla, che te la faró mé adès

350-473: A liquid consonant. For example: Complete assimilation can also occur when an occlusive precedes a fricative. For example: l'è ni t v ért = [ˌlɛ ni‿ˈvːert] . When a sequence of nasal+occlusive falls in contact with another occlusive or a fricative, the first occlusive is completely elided and the nasal undergoes partial assimilation. In this case no lengthening occurs. For example: But when an occlusive precedes /z/ , assimilation involves both consonants and

400-588: A local language that is part of the Romance languages dialect continuum that pre-dates the establishment of Tuscan-based Italian. Eastern Lombard and Italian have only limited mutual intelligibility , like many other Romance languages spoken in Italy. Eastern Lombard does not have any official status either in Lombardy or anywhere else: the only official language in Lombardy is Italian . Eastern Lombard

450-556: A nasal consonant must be homorganic with a following stop. We see this with English i n tolerable but i m plausible ; another example is found in Yoruba , where the present tense of ba "hide" is mba "is hiding", while the present of sun "sleep" is nsun "is sleeping". The tongue contacts the mouth with a surface that has two dimensions: length and width. So far, only points of articulation along its length have been considered. However, articulation varies along its width as well. When

500-411: A province of Brescia, the sounds [o] and [ø] are regularly replaced by [u] and [y] in pretonic position: Since in unstressed position these vocalic sounds are not contrastive, these local variants do not compromise reciprocal intelligibility. Certain varieties of Eastern Lombard (mostly in Brescian area) exhibit a process of regressive vowel harmony involving the feature of vowel height. When

550-553: A single language in New Guinea , and a uvular–epiglottal stop, [q͡ʡ] , found in Somali . More commonly, coarticulation involves secondary articulation of an approximantic nature. Then, both articulations can be similar such as labialized labial [mʷ] or palatalized velar [kʲ] . That is the case of English [w] , which is a velar consonant with secondary labial articulation. Common coarticulations include these: Symbols to

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650-480: A tiˌram en ˈdʒir] Once upon a time blackbirds had white feathers, but in that time winter had been mild and a she-blackbird scorned January saying: "Bad-headed January, in spite of you I have got a brood in my nest." Hearing this, January got angry and he said: "Just wait a bit, you she-blackbird, I will fool you and I will turn you from white into black." Then he said: "I have got two, and I will borrow one, and I will turn you from white to black." And he brought forth

700-637: A té, e se te sét biànca mé te faró ègner négra." E pò dòpo 'l gà dit amò: "Dù ghe i ó e giü 'n prèstet el töaró e se te sét biànca, mé te faró ní négra." E alùra 'l gà fàt nì fò 'n frèt che se n'ìa mài vést giü compàgn. Lé la mèrla la saìa piö che fà cói sò uzilì ndèla gnàta, e isé l'è nàda a rifügiàs endèla càpa del camì; dré al camì va sö 'l föm e lùr i uzilì i è déentàcc töcc négher, e quànche i è nicc fò de là, la mèrla la gh'ìa mìa piö le pène biànche, ma la ghe i éra négre. Alùra Zenér, töt sudisfàt, el gà dìt: "Tò mèrla, che te l'ó fàda mé staólta: se te se stàda biànca mé t'ó fàt ní négra e isé te làset lé de seghetà

750-656: Is a Romance language of the Gallo-Italic branch, closer to Occitan , Catalan , French , etc. than to Italian , with a Celtic substratum. Eastern Lombard is primarily spoken in Eastern Lombardy (Northern Italy ), in the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia , in the Northern region of the province of Mantua and in the area around Crema . The varieties spoken in these regions are generally mutually intelligible for speakers of neighboring areas, but this

800-809: Is also present in Eastern Lombard and is represented in this article with the sequence of signs ⟨-sgi-⟩ , for example: The grammatical system of Eastern Lombard is similar to other those of other Romance languages. The word order is SVO (subject–verb–object) and it has a moderate inflection system: verbs are declined for mood , tense and aspect and agree with their subject in person and number . Nouns are classified as either masculine or feminine and can be marked as singular or plural. Adjectives and pronouns agree with any nouns they modify in gender and number. Eastern Lombard also prefers prepositions over case marking . The oldest known text written in Eastern Lombard consists of fragments of

850-535: Is called coarticulation . When these are doubly articulated , the articulators must be independently movable, and therefore there may be only one each from the major categories labial, coronal, dorsal and pharyngeal . The only common doubly articulated consonants are labial–velar stops like [k͡p] , [ɡ͡b] and less commonly [ŋ͡m] , which are found throughout Western Africa and Central Africa . Other combinations are rare but include labial–(post)alveolar stops [t͡p d͡b n͡m] , found as distinct consonants only in

900-405: Is common in Eastern Lombard. Assimilation can be either complete or partial. Complete assimilation occurs when two occlusive sounds fall in contact. In this case the first occlusive is completely absorbed by the second and the resulting sound has all the features of the second consonant but is notably lengthened. For example: The same phenomenon occurs when an occlusive consonant precedes a nasal or

950-419: Is more commonly called "retroflex". Note: Additional shades of passive articulation are sometimes specified using pre- or post- , for example prepalatal (near the border between the postalveolar region and the hard palate ; prevelar (at the back of the hard palate , also post-palatal or even medio-palatal for the middle of the hard palate); or postvelar (near the border of the soft palate and

1000-448: Is mostly dependent on their formant frequencies and less on the specific tongue position and lip rounding. The terminology used in describing places of articulation has been developed to allow specifying of all theoretically possible contrasts. No known language distinguishes all of the places described in the literature so less precision is needed to distinguish the sounds of a particular language. The human voice produces sounds in

1050-646: Is not always true for distant peripheral areas. For instance, an inhabitant of the alpine valleys of Bergamo can hardly be understood by a rural inhabitant of the plains of Mantua . Differences include lexical, grammatical and phonetic aspects. The following notes are essentially based on the variety of Eastern Lombard spoken in Brescia . The basic principle are generally valid also for the other varieties but local discrepancies can be found. Eastern Lombard has 9 vowels and 20 consonants . The voiced consonants /b/ , /d/ , /ɡ/ , /v/ , /z/ , /dʒ/ never occur at

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1100-475: Is possible to say that only five contrastive vowel qualities are found in unstressed syllables: [o] / [ɔ] / [(u)] , [ø] / [(y)] , [a] , [e] / [ɛ] , [i] (but with the [i] not completely separated from [e] / [ɛ] ). Some examples: The situation can differ for other Eastern Lombard varieties, however, and the rules of the unstressed vowel system vary according to the area. For example, in Franciacorta ,

1150-450: Is rendered by means of the usual Italian orthography rules: ⟨c⟩ before front vowels and ⟨ci⟩ before non-front vowels). A consonant sequence that is peculiar to Lombard is that of a voiceless alveolar fricative followed by a voiceless postalveolar affricate , [stʃ] . This article adopts the convention of representing this sound as ⟨s·c⟩ , although other texts may follow different traditions (so

1200-418: The place of articulation (also point of articulation ) of a consonant is an approximate location along the vocal tract where its production occurs. It is a point where a constriction is made between an active and a passive articulator. Active articulators are organs capable of voluntary movement which create the constriction, while passive articulators are so called because they are normally fixed and are

1250-423: The umlaut is adopted to represent the rounded vowels /ø/ and /y/ : Note that grave and acute accents are also used to indicate the stressed syllable in non-monosyllabic words. Since unstressed vowels are less distinctive, it is not necessary to discriminate the open/close quality. The digraph ⟨-cc⟩ is used at the end of the word to represent the sound /tʃ/ (in other positions this sound

1300-696: The uvula ). They can be useful in the precise description of sounds that are articulated somewhat farther forward or back than a prototypical consonant; for this purpose, the "fronted" and "retracted" IPA diacritics can be used. However, no additional shade is needed to phonemically distinguish two consonants in a single language. Consonants that have the same place of articulation, such as the alveolar sounds /n, t, d, s, z, l/ in English , are said to be homorganic . Similarly, labial /p, b, m/ and velar /k, ɡ, ŋ/ are homorganic. A homorganic nasal rule, an instance of assimilation , operates in many languages, where

1350-428: The airstream is directed down the center of the tongue, the consonant is said to be central . If, however, it is deflected off to one side, escaping between the side of the tongue and the side teeth, it is said to be lateral . Nonetheless, for simplicity's sake the place of articulation is assumed to be the point along the length of the tongue, and the consonant may in addition be said to be central or lateral. That is,

1400-505: The alveolar and post-alveolar regions merge into each other, as do the hard and soft palate, the soft palate and the uvula, and all adjacent regions. Terms like pre-velar (intermediate between palatal and velar), post-velar (between velar and uvular), and upper vs. lower pharyngeal may be used to specify more precisely where an articulation takes place. However, although a language may contrast pre-velar and post-velar sounds, it does not also contrast them with palatal and uvular sounds (of

1450-448: The body of the tongue contact different parts of the roof of the mouth, but it cannot be independently controlled so they are all subsumed under the term dorsal . That is unlike coronal gestures involving the front of the tongue, which is more flexible. The epiglottis may be active, contacting the pharynx, or passive, being contacted by the aryepiglottal folds. Distinctions made in these laryngeal areas are very difficult to observe and are

1500-405: The end of a word. This phenomenon, common to other languages (including German , Catalan , Dutch , Turkish and Russian ), is called final devoicing . The phoneme /ʃ/ only occurs in loanwords, often borrowings from Italian. For example, scià , "to ski" (from Italian sciare ) is pronounced /ʃiˈa/ . The phoneme /tʃ/ is pronounced [j] before a consonant. This never occurs inside a word as

1550-411: The following manner: The larynx or voice box is a cylindrical framework of cartilage that serves to anchor the vocal folds . When the muscles of the vocal folds contract, the airflow from the lungs is impeded until the vocal folds are forced apart again by the increasing air pressure from the lungs. The process continues in a periodic cycle that is felt as a vibration (buzzing). In singing,

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1600-442: The lips, upper teeth, gums, or roof of the mouth to the back of the throat. Although it is a continuum, there are several contrastive areas so languages may distinguish consonants by articulating them in different areas, but few languages contrast two sounds within the same area unless there is some other feature which contrasts as well. The following 9 degrees of passive articulatory areas are known to be contrastive (sorted such that

1650-414: The neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck and the level of pressure inside the balloon. Similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx. The active articulators are movable parts of the vocal apparatus that impede or direct the airstream, typically some part of the tongue or lips. There are five major parts of

1700-655: The normal unstressed vowel variability. Verbs are affected by this process in their conjugation, when the inflection contains a stressed /i/ (there are no verbal suffixes containing a stressed /u/ ). For example: Adjectives formed with the suffix -ùs (feminine -ùza ) also exhibit this rule: Since Eastern Lombard is still principally an oral language, a commonly accepted orthography has not been established. While in recent years there has been an increasing production of texts (mainly light comedies and poem collections), each author continues to follow their own spelling rules. The most problematic and controversial issues seem to be

1750-433: The parts with which an active articulator makes contact. Along with the manner of articulation and phonation , the place of articulation gives the consonant its distinctive sound. Since vowels are produced with an open vocal tract, the point where their production occurs cannot be easily determined. Therefore, they are not described in terms of a place of articulation but by the relative positions in vowel space . This

1800-457: The phoneme /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] when it appears as last sound of the word in an unstressed syllable (actually slightly more close than cardinal [ɔ] ). For example: Some vowel contrasts are eliminated in unstressed syllables. For example, in the urban Brescian variety, [ɔ] and [o] no longer contrast. Thus, the word robà ("to steal") can be pronounced both [roˈba] and [rɔˈba] , with almost no difference noticed by speakers. In addition,

1850-546: The prealpine valleys of the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia; thus Brèssa ("Brescia") is pronounced [ˈbrɛhɔ] instead of [ˈbrɛsɔ] . However, even in areas where this phenomenon is the rule, there are some interesting exceptions to take in account. Words like grassie ("thanks") are never pronounced [ˈɡrahje] . At present, the most common pronunciation is [ˈɡrasje] but a more genuine outcome (and often preferred by aged people) would be [ˈɡrahtʃe] . Other examples for this feature: Regressive assimilation at word boundaries

1900-502: The representation of intervocalic /s/ and /z/ (rendered by different authors with ⟨-ss-⟩ , ⟨-s-⟩ or ⟨-z-⟩ ) and final /tʃ/ vs. /k/ (rendered with ⟨-cc⟩ , ⟨-c⟩ or ⟨-ch⟩ ). This article follows the rules of the Italian orthography , with the following exceptions. Diacritic marks are utilized for vowel sounds to distinguish /e/ from /ɛ/ and /o/ from /ɔ/ in stressed syllables. Furthermore,

1950-709: The result is an affricate sound: The phoneme /n/ can undergo assimilation in place of articulation with a following consonant. Thus, the /n/ in /nk/ and /nɡ/ is a velar [ŋ] , the /n/ in /nv/ and /nf/ is a labiodental [ɱ] . Within a word, the phoneme /n/ is never transcribed before /p/ and /b/ , where /m/ is written instead. Nasal assimilation, including /n/ to /m/ , also takes place across word boundaries. For example: Eastern Lombard has 9 vocalic sounds: Only three vocalic phonemes occur in unstressed final syllables: /a/ in open syllables only, and /o/ and /e/ in both open and closed syllables. Other vowels can occur in final syllables in loanwords. Locally,

2000-411: The same major part of the vocal apparatus. The following 9 degrees of active articulatory areas are known to be contrastive (sorted such that the top-most is in the front-most area of the mouth and the bottom-most is in the rear-most area of the mouth): In bilabial consonants , both lips move so the articulatory gesture brings the lips together, but by convention, the lower lip is said to be active and

2050-490: The same sequence can also be spelled ⟨s'c⟩ or ⟨s-c⟩ or even the ambiguous ⟨sc⟩ ; some authors use ⟨scc⟩ ). This sequence, which is absent in Italian, can occur at the beginning of word, as in s·cèt ("son, boy") /stʃɛt/ ; in the middle, as in brös·cia ("brush") /ˈbrøstʃa/ ; or at the end, as in giös·cc ("right, correct", plural) /ˈdʒøstʃ/ . The sequence /zdʒ/

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2100-416: The same type of consonant) so contrasts are limited to the number above, if not always their exact location. The following table shows the possible combinations of active and passive articulators. The possible locations for sibilants as well as non-sibilants to occur are indicated in dashed red . For sibilants, there are additional complications involving tongue shape ; see the article on sibilants for

2150-434: The segment /tʃ/ + consonant doesn't exist in Eastern Lombard. However, it does occur when /tʃ/ appears word-finally preceding another word which begins with a consonant. For example: The approximants /j/ and /w/ are distinct phonemes from the vocalic sounds /i/ , /u/ . This can be seen in the following examples: Locally, the alveolar fricative [s] is replaced by the glottal fricative [h] . This mainly happens in

2200-434: The stress falls on a close vowel ( /i/ or /u/ ) the preceding vowels shift their height, becoming close as well ( /ɛ/ and /e/ become [i] , while /ɔ/ and /o/ become [u] ). The vowel /a/ is not affected by this process and acts as opaque vowel blocking the harmonization process. In Camuno, harmonization occurs almost only where the stressed vowel is an /i/ and not where it is an /u/ . This phenomenon affects all

2250-414: The subject of ongoing investigation, and several still-unidentified combinations are thought possible. The glottis acts upon itself. There is a sometimes fuzzy line between glottal, aryepiglottal, and epiglottal consonants and phonation , which uses these same areas. The passive are the more stationary parts of the vocal tract that the active articulator touches or gets close to; they can be anywhere from

2300-400: The top-most is in the front-most area of the mouth and the bottom-most is in the rear-most area of the mouth): The regions are not strictly separated. For instance, in some sounds in many languages, the surface of the tongue contacts a relatively large area from the back of the upper teeth to the alveolar ridge, which is common enough to have received its own name, denti-alveolar . Likewise,

2350-432: The upper lip passive. Similarly, in linguolabial consonants the tongue contacts the upper lip with the upper lip actively moving down to meet the tongue; nonetheless, the tongue is conventionally said to be active and the lip passive if for no other reason than that the parts of the mouth below the vocal tract are typically active, and those above the vocal tract are typically passive. In dorsal gestures, different parts of

2400-442: The vibration frequency of the vocal folds determines the pitch of the sound produced. Voiced phonemes such as the pure vowels are, by definition, distinguished by the buzzing sound of this periodic oscillation of the vocal cords. The lips of the mouth can be used in a similar way to create a similar sound, as any toddler or trumpeter can demonstrate. A rubber balloon , inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across

2450-411: The vocal tract that move: the lips, the flexible front of the tongue, the body of the tongue, the root of the tongue together with the epiglottis , and the glottis . They are discrete in that they can act independently of each other, and two or more may work together in what is called coarticulation . The five main active parts can be further divided, as many languages contrast sounds produced within

2500-557: The words independent of the word's function. Because the diminutive and augmentative are formed with the suffixes -ì and -ù (feminine -ìna and -ùna ) respectively, this process is easily observable in nouns: As already mentioned, the vowel /a/ acts as opaque vowel which blocks the harmonization process: But vowels that occur after the /a/ and before the stressed vowel are still affected: In these cases variants like funtanì and üspedalì (but not üspidalì ) or murtadilìna are accepted (or locally preferred) but fall under

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