79-455: R. M. Renfield is a fictional character who appears in Bram Stoker 's 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula . He is Count Dracula 's deranged, fanatically devoted servant and familiar, helping him in his plan to turn Mina Harker into a vampire in return for a continuous supply of insects to consume and the promise of immortality. Throughout the novel, he resides in an asylum , where he
158-436: A cross on the eastern wall of their house in order to indicate the eastward direction of prayer . Prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental , is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, also privately. The person may sit, stand, or kneel in front of the crucifix, sometimes looking at it in contemplation, or merely in front of it with head bowed or eyes closed. During
237-521: A prison in England replaced its crucifix and static altar with a cross and portable altar when it was renovated as a multi-faith chapel. Right-leaning media reported that the crucifix had been removed "in case it offends Muslims". In 2008 in Spain, a local judge ordered crucifixes removed from public schools to settle a decades-old dispute over whether crucifixes should be displayed in public buildings in
316-477: A Catholic altar. Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional corpus , but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus' body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief . Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, but this distinction is not always observed. An entire painting of the crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not
395-839: A boy who caught flies in a bottle might be a clue for the later development of the Renfield character in Dracula . On 8 November 2012, Stoker was honoured with a Google Doodle on Google's homepage commemorating the 165th anniversary of his birth. An annual festival takes place in Dublin, the birthplace of Bram Stoker, in honour of his literary achievements. The Dublin City Council Bram Stoker Festival encompasses spectacles, literary events, film, family-friendly activities and outdoor events, and takes place every October Bank Holiday Weekend in Dublin. The festival
474-629: A cross or crucifix at their head. In the Eastern Orthodox Church , the crucifix is often placed above the iconostasis in the church. In the Russian Orthodox Church a large crucifix (" Golgotha ") is placed behind the Holy Table (altar). During Matins of Good Friday , a large crucifix is taken in procession to the center of the church, where it is venerated by the faithful. Sometimes the soma ( corpus )
553-694: A crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the central axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood . By the Late Middle Ages these were a near-universal feature of Western churches, but they are now very rare. Modern Roman Catholic churches and many Lutheran churches often have a crucifix above the altar on the wall; for the celebration of Mass , the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church requires that "on or close to
632-472: A diagnosis for clinical vampirism, used for the behavioral profiling of serial killers compelled by bloodlust and for patients who act out violent vampiric fantasies; this diagnosis, however, is not recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The effects of Renfield syndrome follows the pathology of the character in the novel consisting of several stages. Initially
711-578: A great-grandnephew of Bram Stoker, decided to write "a sequel that bore the Stoker name" to "reestablish creative control over" the original novel, with encouragement from screenwriter Ian Holt, because of the Stokers' frustrating history with Dracula's copyright. In 2009, Dracula: The Un-Dead was released, written by Dacre Stoker and Ian Holt. Both writers "based [their work] on Bram Stoker's own handwritten notes for characters and plot threads excised from
790-438: A knife and cutting his arm; as Seward's blood drips from his hand, Renfield licks it off the floor. During the course of the novel, the role of Renfield as a patient allows the reader to understand his behavior from the perspective of a psychologist. Through Renfield's demented mind, the reader learns the nature of a vampirism that is eventually revealed to be under the influence of Count Dracula ; Renfield attempts to escape from
869-477: A level of detailed realism to the story, a skill which Stoker had developed as a newspaper writer. At the time of its publication, Dracula was considered a "straightforward horror novel" based on imaginary creations of supernatural life. "It gave form to a universal fantasy ... and became a part of popular culture." According to the Encyclopedia of World Biography , Stoker's stories are today included in
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#1732771973340948-810: A mistake. He was named University Athlete, participating in multiple sports, including playing rugby for Dublin University . He was auditor of the College Historical Society ( the Hist ) and president of the University Philosophical Society (he remains the only student in Trinity's history to hold both positions), where his first paper was on Sensationalism in Fiction and Society . Stoker became interested in
1027-748: A non-confessional state. On 18 March 2011, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in the Lautsi v. Italy case, that the requirement in Italian law that crucifixes be displayed in classrooms of state schools does not violate the European Convention on Human Rights . Crucifixes are common in most other Italian official buildings, including courts of law . On 24 March 2011, the Constitutional Court of Peru ruled that
1106-472: A piece of wood shaped to include the double-barred cross and perhaps the edge of Christ's hips and halo , and no background. More sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy (see gallery examples), including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses . Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the spear wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he
1185-514: A standard work. Furthermore, he possessed an interest in art and was a founder of the Dublin Sketching Club in 1879. In 1878, Stoker married Florence Balcombe , daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Balcombe of 1 Marino Crescent. She was a celebrated beauty whose former suitor had been Oscar Wilde . Stoker had known Wilde from his student days, having proposed him for membership of the university's Philosophical Society while he
1264-536: Is angled upward toward the penitent thief Saint Dismas (to the viewer's left) and downward toward the impenitent thief Gestas (to the viewer's right). The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful and somber. They are rarely three-dimensional figures as in the Western tradition, although these may be found where Western influences are strong, but are more typically icons painted on
1343-565: Is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm . Eastern crucifixes have Jesus' two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also generally absent in Eastern crucifixes, since
1422-693: Is removable and is taken off the crucifix at Vespers that evening during the Gospel lesson describing the Descent from the Cross . The empty cross may then remain in the centre of the church until the Paschal vigil (local practices vary). The blessing cross which the priest uses to bless the faithful at the dismissal will often have the crucifix on one side and an icon of the Resurrection of Jesus on
1501-730: Is supported by the Bram Stoker Estate and is funded by Dublin City Council . Crucifix A crucifix (from the Latin cruci fixus meaning '(one) fixed to a cross') is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the corpus (Latin for 'body'). The crucifix emphasizes Jesus ' sacrifice, including his death by crucifixion , which Christians believe brought about
1580-452: Is treated by Dr. John Seward . In the various film adaptations of the novel, he has been portrayed by actors such as Alexander Granach , Dwight Frye , Klaus Kinski , Tom Waits , Peter MacNicol , and Nicholas Hoult . A description of Renfield from the novel: R. M. Renfield, aetat 59. Sanguine temperament, great physical strength, morbidly excitable, periods of gloom, ending in some fixed idea which I cannot make out. I presume that
1659-679: Is what I have done for you, what will you do for me?". The Lutheran Churches retained the use of the crucifix, "justifying their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan." Martin Luther did not object to them, and this was among his differences with Andreas Karlstadt as early as 1525. At
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#17327719733401738-492: The Carpathian Mountains . However this claim has been challenged by many including Elizabeth Miller , a professor who, since 1990, has had as her major field of research and writing Dracula , and its author, sources, and influences. She has stated, "The only comment about the subject matter of the talk was that Vambery 'spoke loudly against Russian aggression.'" There had been nothing in their conversations about
1817-565: The Catholic Church which believes in his divinity . According to Christian tradition , Saint Peter was martyred by being crucified upside-down . In the Moravian Church , Nicolaus Zinzendorf had an experience in which he believed he encountered Jesus. Seeing a painting of a crucifix, Zinzendorf fell on his knees vowing to glorify Jesus after contemplating on the wounds of Christ and an inscription that stated "This
1896-621: The Nehushtan . It was promised that those sinners who looked upon the Nehushtan would be healed. The section of Numbers about the Nehushtan is one of the readings on Exaltation of the Cross that occurs on September 14 in the Roman Catholic Church. It is paired with John 3:14–15 as the gospel reading. Taken together, these readings explain the striking front and center position of a large crucifix normally fixed above or behind
1975-763: The Theatre Royal in Dublin. Irving invited Stoker for dinner at the Shelbourne Hotel where he was staying, and they became friends. Stoker also wrote stories, and "Crystal Cup" was published by the London Society in 1872, followed by "The Chain of Destiny" in four parts in The Shamrock . In 1876, while a civil servant in Dublin, Stoker wrote the non-fiction book The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland (published 1879), which remained
2054-460: The death's-head moth , then develops a scheme of feeding the flies to spiders , and the spiders to birds , in order to accumulate more and more life. When denied a cat to accommodate the birds, he eats the birds himself. He also changes his ideas to accommodate Mina Harker by quickly eating all flies and stating that it was an old habit. Seward diagnoses him as a " zoophagous maniac", or carnivorous madman. Later Renfield attacks Seward, acquiring
2133-466: The redemption of mankind . Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross , rather than a Tau cross or a Coptic cross . The crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians , and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts . It is especially important in the Catholic Church , and is also used in the Eastern Orthodox Church , most Oriental Orthodox Churches except
2212-473: The "tales of the terrible Dracula" that are supposed to have "inspired Stoker to equate his vampire-protagonist with the long-dead tyrant." At any rate, by this time, Stoker's novel was well underway, and he was already using the name Dracula for his vampire. Stoker then spent several years researching Central and East European folklore and mythological stories of vampires . The 1972 book In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally claimed that
2291-664: The Armenian & Syriac Church, Lutheranism , and Anglicanism . The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations , and in the Assyrian Church of the East and Armenian Apostolic Church , which prefer to use a cross without the figure of Jesus (the corpus ). Roman Catholics see the crucifix as the perfect fulfillment of that inferred by the serpent created by Moses in Numbers 21 :8—9, called
2370-566: The British Empire. He was an admirer of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone , whom he knew personally, and supported his plans for Ireland. Stoker believed in progress and took a keen interest in science and science-based medicine. Some of Stoker's novels represent early examples of science fiction, such as The Lady of the Shroud (1909). He had a writer's interest in the occult, notably mesmerism , but despised fraud and believed in
2449-523: The Count in Stoker's novel was based on Vlad III Dracula . However, according to Elizabeth Miller , Stoker borrowed only the name and "scraps of miscellaneous information" about Romanian history; further, there are no comments about Vlad III in the author's working notes. Dracula is an epistolary novel , written as a collection of realistic but completely fictional diary entries, telegrams, letters, ship's logs, and newspaper clippings, all of which added
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2528-463: The English coastal town of Whitby in 1890, and that visit was said to be part of the inspiration for Dracula , staying at a guesthouse in West Cliff at 6 Royal Crescent, doing his research at the public library at 7 Pier Road (now Quayside Fish and Chips ). Count Dracula comes ashore at Whitby, and in the shape of a black dog runs up the 199 steps to the graveyard of St Mary's Church in
2607-465: The English coastal town of Whitby , Stoker drew inspiration for writing Dracula . He died on 20 April 1912 due to locomotor ataxia and was cremated in north London. Since his death, his magnum opus Dracula has become one of the best-known works in English literature and the novel has been adapted for numerous films, short stories and plays. Stoker was born on 8 November 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent , Clontarf in Dublin, Ireland. The park adjacent to
2686-721: The Gardens of Rest. His ashes are still stored in Golders Green Crematorium today. Stoker was raised a Protestant in the Church of Ireland . He was a strong supporter of the Liberal Party and took a keen interest in Irish affairs. As a "philosophical home ruler", he supported Home Rule for Ireland brought about by peaceful means. He remained an ardent monarchist who believed that Ireland should remain within
2765-631: The Kilmarnock Arms Hotel. The guest book with his signatures from 1894 and 1895 still survives. The nearby Slains Castle (also known as New Slains Castle ) is linked with Bram Stoker and plausibly provided the visual palette for the descriptions of Castle Dracula during the writing phase. A distinctive room in Slains Castle, the octagonal hall, matches the description of the octagonal room in Castle Dracula. Stoker visited
2844-406: The Middle Ages small crucifixes, generally hung on a wall, became normal in the personal cells or living quarters first of monks, then all clergy, followed by the homes of the laity , spreading down from the top of society as these became cheap enough for the average person to afford. Most towns had a large crucifix erected as a monument, or some other shrine at the crossroads of the town. Building on
2923-665: The Renaissance the "S"-shape is generally much less pronounced. Eastern Christian blessing crosses will often have the Crucifixion depicted on one side, and the Resurrection on the other, illustrating Eastern Orthodox theology 's understanding of the Crucifixion and Resurrection as two intimately related aspects of the same act of salvation. Another, symbolic, depiction shows a triumphant Christ ( Latin : Christus triumphans ), clothed in robes, rather than stripped as for his execution, with arms raised, appearing to rise up from
3002-653: The White Worm (1911). He published his Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving in 1906, after Irving's death, which proved successful, and managed productions at the Prince of Wales Theatre . Before writing Dracula , Stoker met Ármin Vámbéry , a Hungarian-Jewish writer and traveller (born in Szent-György, Kingdom of Hungary now Svätý Jur , Slovakia ). Dracula likely emerged from Vámbéry's dark stories of
3081-542: The altar or near it, there is to be a cross, with the figure of Christ crucified upon it, a cross clearly visible to the assembled people. It is desirable that such a cross should remain near the altar even outside of liturgical celebrations, so as to call to mind for the faithful the saving Passion of the Lord." The requirement of the altar cross was also mentioned in pre-1970 editions of the Roman Missal , though not in
3160-428: The altar there is to be a cross with a figure of Christ crucified". The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix consists of an upright post or stipes and a single crosspiece to which the sufferer's arms were nailed. There may also be a short projecting nameplate , showing the letters INRI (Greek: INBI). The Russian Orthodox crucifix usually has an additional third crossbar, to which the feet are nailed, and which
3239-435: The ancient custom, many Catholics, Lutherans and Anglicans hang a crucifix inside their homes and also use the crucifix as a focal point of a home altar . The wealthy erected proprietary chapels as they could afford to do this. Catholic (both Eastern and Western ), Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , Anglican and Lutheran Christians generally use the crucifix in public religious services. They believe use of
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3318-479: The categories of horror fiction, romanticized Gothic stories, and melodrama. They are classified alongside other works of popular fiction, such as Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , which also used the myth-making and story-telling method of having multiple narrators telling the same tale from different perspectives. According to historian Jules Zanger, this leads the reader to the assumption that "they can't all be lying". The original 541-page typescript of Dracula
3397-536: The cause of death to overwork, others to tertiary syphilis . His death certificate listed the cause of death as " Locomotor ataxia 6 months", presumed to be a reference to syphilis. He was cremated, and his ashes were placed in a display urn at Golders Green Crematorium in north London. The ashes of Irving Noel Stoker, the author's son, were added to his father's urn following his death in 1961. The original plan had been to keep his parents' ashes together, but after Florence Stoker's death, her ashes were scattered at
3476-740: The course of Irving's tours, Stoker travelled the world, although he never visited Eastern Europe , a setting for his most famous novel. Stoker enjoyed the United States, where Irving was popular. With Irving he was invited twice to the White House , and knew William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt . Stoker set two of his novels in America, and used Americans as characters, the most notable being Quincey Morris . He also met one of his literary idols, Walt Whitman , having written to him in 1872 an extraordinary letter that some have interpreted as
3555-543: The cross, sometimes accompanied by "rays of light", or an aureole encircling his body. He may be robed as a prophet , crowned as a king , and vested in a stole as Great High Priest . On some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha ( Calvary ), the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew "the place of the skull." Medieval tradition held that it
3634-585: The crucifix is in keeping with the statement by Paul the Apostle in 1 Corinthians : "we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God". In the West, altar crosses and processional crosses began to be crucifixes in the 11th century, which became general around the 14th century, as they became cheaper. The Roman Rite requires that "either on
3713-482: The degree of Master Mason on June 20, 1883." Stoker however was not a particular active Freemason, spent only six years as an active member, and did not take part in any Masonic activities during his time in London. The short story collection Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories was published in 1914 by Stoker's widow, Florence Stoker , who was also his literary executrix . The first film adaptation of Dracula
3792-467: The destruction of the negative and all prints of the film. The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925. A single print of the film survived, however, and it has become well known. The first authorised film version of Dracula did not come about until almost a decade later when Universal Studios released Tod Browning 's Dracula starring Bela Lugosi . Canadian writer Dacre Stoker ,
3871-457: The early 1620s when James' heir was seeking a Spanish marriage was the subject of rumour and close observation by both Catholics and Protestants; when the match fell through they disappeared. In 2005, a mother accused her daughter's school in Derby , England, of discriminating against Christians after the teenager was suspended for refusing to take off a crucifix necklace . In 2008, a chapel in
3950-565: The emphasis is not on Christ's suffering, but on his triumph over sin and death. The S-shaped position of Jesus' body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, though also found in the German Gero Cross of the same date. Probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy , by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. It
4029-674: The expression of a deeply-suppressed homosexuality. Stoker was a regular visitor to Cruden Bay in Scotland between 1892 and 1910. His month-long holidays to the Aberdeenshire coastal village provided a large portion of available time for writing his books. Two novels were set in Cruden Bay: The Watter's Mou' (1895) and The Mystery of the Sea (1902). He started writing Dracula there in 1895 while in residence at
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#17327719733404108-511: The floor, severely injuring him. The vampire hunters enter the room shortly afterward, and through an emergency surgery Van Helsing manages to prolong Renfield's life. Renfield tells how Dracula convinced him to invite Dracula in, detailing how Dracula entered the home and went after Mina. They leave him lying on the floor to rescue her. During the party's confrontation against Dracula in Mina's room, they manage to repel him with their crucifixes and wafers of sacramental bread , forcing him to flee
4187-583: The hospital multiple times to meet him. The vampire , whose abilities include control over animals such as rats , bats and spiders , comes to Renfield with an offer: if Renfield worships him, he promises to make him immortal by providing an endless supply of insects and rats, as Renfield believes that blood is the source of life much like Dracula himself. However, when confronted by Mina Harker, Dracula's latest victim, Renfield suffers an attack of conscience and begs her to flee from his master's grasp. Consumed by his desire to keep Mina safe, he begs Seward and
4266-439: The house is now known as Bram Stoker Park. His parents were Abraham Stoker (1799–1876), an Anglo-Irishman from Dublin and Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornley (1818–1901), of English and Irish descent, who was raised in County Sligo . Stoker was the third of seven children, the eldest of whom was Sir Thornley Stoker , 1st Baronet . Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland Parish of Clontarf and attended
4345-454: The latter force is paramount, and only accident or a series of accidents can balance it. — From Dr. John Seward 's journal Renfield is an inmate at the lunatic asylum overseen by Dr. John Seward . He suffers from delusions which compel him to eat living creatures in the hope of obtaining their life-force for himself. Later Renfield's own testimony reveals that Dracula would send him insects, which he begins consuming. He starts with flies ,
4424-443: The notes was created by Elizabeth Miller and Robert Eighteen-Bisang in 1998. Stoker was a member of The London Library and conducted much of the research for Dracula there . In 2018, the Library discovered some of the books that Stoker used for his research, complete with notes and marginalia. After suffering a number of strokes, Stoker died at No. 26 St George's Square , London on 20 April 1912. Some biographers attribute
4503-418: The original 1570 Roman Missal of Pope Pius V . The Rite of Funerals says that the Gospel Book, the Bible, or a cross (which will generally be in crucifix form) may be placed on the coffin for a Requiem Mass , but a second standing cross is not to be placed near the coffin if the altar cross can be easily seen from the body of the church. Eastern Christian liturgical processions called crucessions include
4582-409: The original edition" along with their own research for the sequel. This also marked Dacre Stoker's writing debut. In spring 2012, Dacre Stoker in collaboration with Elizabeth Miller presented the "lost" Dublin Journal written by Bram Stoker, which had been kept by his great-grandson Noel Dobbs. Stoker's diary entries shed a light on the issues that concerned him before his London years. A remark about
4661-455: The other, the side with the Resurrection being used on Sundays and during Paschaltide , and the crucifix on other days. Exorcist Gabriele Amorth has stated that the crucifix is one of the most effective means of averting or opposing demons . In folklore, it is believed to ward off vampires , incubi , succubi , and other evils. Modern anti-Christians have used an inverted (upside-down) crucifix when showing disdain for Jesus Christ or
4740-419: The others to allow him to leave lest he feel guilty for her fate. When Seward denies his request, Renfield tells the vampire hunters that "[he] warned them!" When Dracula returns that night, Renfield is again seized by his conscience. He remembers hearing that madmen have unnatural strength, and so attempts to fight Dracula. Renfield's strength leaves him after looking into Dracula's eyes, and Dracula throws him to
4819-414: The parish church with their children, who were baptised there. Abraham was a senior civil servant. Stoker was bedridden with an unknown illness until he started school at the age of seven, when he made a complete recovery. Of this time, Stoker wrote, "I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years." He
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#17327719733404898-482: The patient exhibits zoophagia, a compulsion to eat insects, or to eat live animals or drink their blood. As the condition worsens, the behavior grows more and more deviant, culminating in a compulsion to drink another person's blood in an act described as True-Vampirism, including intentionally harming another individual for that purpose—the same behavior Renfield is seen exhibiting in the novel. Bram Stoker Abraham "Bram" Stoker (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912)
4977-407: The room. However, Dracula flees into other rooms and destroys their records, then back into Renfield's room to break his neck. "When Dr. Van Helsing and Dr. Seward had come back from seeing poor Renfield, we went gravely into what was to be done. First, Dr. Seward told us that when he and Dr. Van Helsing had gone down to the room below they had found Renfield lying on the floor, all in a heap. His face
5056-404: The sanguine temperament itself and the disturbing influence end in a mentally-accomplished finish, a possibly dangerous man, probably dangerous if unselfish. In selfish men, caution is as secure an armour for their foes as for themselves. What I think of on this point is, when self is the fixed point the centripetal force is balanced with the centrifugal. When duty, a cause, etc., is the fixed point,
5135-426: The shadow of the Whitby Abbey ruins. Stoker began writing novels while working as manager for Irving and secretary and director of London's Lyceum Theatre, beginning with The Snake's Pass in 1890 and Dracula in 1897. During this period, he was part of the literary staff of The Daily Telegraph in London, and he wrote other fiction, including the horror novels The Lady of the Shroud (1909) and The Lair of
5214-541: The superiority of the scientific method over superstition. Stoker counted among his friends J. W. Brodie-Innis , a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , and hired member Pamela Colman Smith as an artist for the Lyceum Theatre, but no evidence suggests that Stoker ever joined the Order himself. Like Irving, who was an active Freemason , Stoker also became a member of the order, "initiated into Freemasonry in Buckingham and Chandos Lodge No. 1150 in February 1883, passed in April of that same year, and raised to
5293-427: The theatre while a student through his friend Dr. Maunsell. While working for the Irish Civil Service , he became the theatre critic for the Dublin Evening Mail , which was co-owned by Sheridan Le Fanu , an author of Gothic tales. Theatre critics were held in low esteem at the time, but Stoker attracted notice by the quality of his reviews. In December 1876, he gave a favourable review of Henry Irving's Hamlet at
5372-407: The time of the Reformation , Luther retained the crucifix in the Lutheran Church and they remain the center of worship in Lutheran parishes across Europe. In the United States, however, Lutheranism came under the influence of Calvinism, and the plain cross came to be used in many churches. In contrast to the practice of the Moravian Church and Lutheran Churches, the early Reformed Churches rejected
5451-470: The use of the crucifix, and indeed the unadorned cross, along with other traditional religious imagery, as idolatrous. Calvin , considered to be the father of the Reformed Church, was strongly opposed to both cross and crucifix. In England, the Royal Chapels of Elizabeth I were most unusual among local churches in retaining crucifixes, following the Queen's conservative tastes. These disappeared under her successor, James I , and their brief re-appearance in
5530-411: Was F. W. Murnau 's Nosferatu , released in 1922, with Max Schreck starring as Count Orlok. Florence Stoker eventually sued the filmmakers, and was represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors. Her chief legal complaint was that she had neither been asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty. The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs. Stoker demanding
5609-418: Was all bruised and crushed in, and the bones of the neck were broken." The character Renfield has influenced the study of real-life behavior in psychiatric patients with an obsession with drinking blood. The term Renfield syndrome was coined by psychologist Richard Noll in 1992, originally as a joke term, to describe clinical vampirism . Correspondingly, there is also a "vampire personality disorder" (VPD);
5688-569: Was an Irish author who is best known for writing the 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula . During his lifetime, he was better known as the personal assistant of actor Sir Henry Irving and business manager of the West End 's Lyceum Theatre , which Irving owned. In his early years, Stoker worked as a theatre critic for an Irish newspaper and wrote stories as well as commentaries. He also enjoyed travelling, particularly to Cruden Bay in Scotland where he set two of his novels. During another visit to
5767-404: Was believed to have been lost until it was found in a barn in northwestern Pennsylvania in the early 1980s. It consisted of typed sheets with many emendations, and handwritten on the title page was "THE UN-DEAD." The author's name was shown at the bottom as Bram Stoker. Author Robert Latham remarked: "the most famous horror novel ever published, its title changed at the last minute." The typescript
5846-527: Was important for Stoker and through him, he became involved in London's high society, where he met James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (to whom he was distantly related). Working for Irving, the most famous actor of his time, and managing one of the most successful theatres in London made Stoker a notable if busy man. He was dedicated to Irving and his memoirs show he idolised him. In London, Stoker also met Hall Caine , who became one of his closest friends – he dedicated Dracula to him. In
5925-574: Was in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus' suffering and realistic details, during a process of general humanization of Christ favored by the Franciscan order . During the 13th century the suffering Italian model ( Christus patiens ) triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one ( Christus gloriosus ) anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue . Since
6004-538: Was president. Wilde was upset at Florence's decision, but Stoker later resumed the acquaintanceship, and, after Wilde's fall, visited him on the Continent. The Stokers moved to London, where Stoker became acting manager and then business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theatre in the West End , a post he held for 27 years. On 31 December 1879, Bram and Florence's only child was born, a son whom they christened Irving Noel Thornley Stoker. The collaboration with Henry Irving
6083-495: Was privately educated at Bective House school run by the Reverend William Woods. After his recovery, he grew up without further serious illnesses, even excelling as an athlete at Trinity College, Dublin , which he attended from 1864 to 1870. He graduated with a BA in 1870, and paid to receive his MA in 1875. Though he later in life recalled graduating "with honours in mathematics", this appears to have been
6162-617: Was purchased by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen . Stoker's inspirations for the story, in addition to Whitby, may have included a visit to Slains Castle in Aberdeenshire , a visit to the crypts of St. Michan's Church in Dublin, and the novella Carmilla by Sheridan Le Fanu . Stoker's original research notes for the novel are kept by the Rosenbach Museum and Library in Philadelphia . A facsimile edition of
6241-617: Was the burial-place of Adam and Eve , and that the cross of Christ was raised directly over Adam's skull, so many crucifixes manufactured in Catholic countries still show the skull and crossbones below the corpus. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, with a 31 feet (9.4 m) high statue. In the early Church , many Christians hung
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