70-438: The Research Defence Society was a British scientific society and lobby group, founded by Stephen Paget , in 1908, to fight against the anti-vivisectionist "enemies of reason" at the beginning of the 20th century. At the end of 2008, after being active for 100 years, it merged with the communications group Coalition for Medical Progress to form the advocacy group Understanding Animal Research . The Research Defence Society's aim
140-423: A chemist , beginning at the École Normale Supérieure , and continuing at Strasbourg and Lille, he examined the chemical, optical and crystallographic properties of a group of compounds known as tartrates . He resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid in 1848. A solution of this compound derived from living things rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The problem
210-409: A "predisposition" of an organ to be the recipient of specific growths. In his paper, Paget presents and analyzes 735 fatal cases of breast cancer, complete with autopsy, as well as many other cancer cases from the literature and argues that the distribution of metastases cannot be due to chance, concluding that although "the best work in pathology of cancer is done by those who… are studying the nature of
280-407: A mutton stew, which students had refused to eat, would be served and eaten every Monday. On another occasion he threatened to expel any student caught smoking, and 73 of the 80 students in the school resigned. In 1863, he was appointed professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts , a position he held until his resignation in 1867. In 1867, he became
350-623: A new disease that was decimating silkworm farms from the south of France and Europe, the pébrine , characterized on a macroscopic scale by black spots and on a microscopic scale by the " Cornalia corpuscles". Pasteur accepted and made five long stays in Alès , between 7 June 1865 and 1869. Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease. Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages , who coined
420-406: A note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani , which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately. "Pasteur is mistaken. He would only change his mind in the course of 1867". At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and
490-562: A profound effect on structural chemistry, with eventual implications for many areas including medicinal chemistry . He was the director of the Pasteur Institute , established in 1887, until his death, and his body was interred in a vault beneath the institute. Although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals. Louis Pasteur
560-406: A vaccine for anthrax , which affected cattle . In 1877, Pasteur had earlier directed his laboratory to culture the bacteria from the blood of infected animals, following thediscovery of the bacterium by Robert Koch. When animals were infected with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease. Many cattle were dying of anthrax in "cursed fields". Pasteur
630-434: A vaccine for all infectious diseases that have repeatedly afflicted humanity, and are a major burden on agriculture and breeding of domestic animals. In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera did not consistently produce immunity, and has subsequently been proven to be ineffective. Following the results with chicken cholera, Pasteur eventually utilized the immunization method developed for chicken cholera to create
700-416: Is an alcoholic ferment, the yeast of beer, which is found everywhere that sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, so also there is a particular ferment, a lactic yeast , always present when sugar becomes lactic acid ." Pasteur also wrote about alcoholic fermentation. It was published in full form in 1858. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Justus von Liebig had proposed the theory that fermentation
770-469: Is the crucial point of my subject. I ask the Academy not to criticize, for the time being, the confidence of my proceedings that permit me to determine the microbe's attenuation, in order to save the independence of my studies and to better assure their progress... [In conclusion] I would like to point out to the Academy two main consequences to the facts presented: the hope to culture all microbes and to find
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#1732781037692840-476: The baccalauréat scientifique (general science) degree from Dijon , where he earned his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree (Bachelier ès Sciences Mathématiques) in 1842, but with a mediocre grade in chemistry. Later in 1842, Pasteur took the entrance test for the École Normale Supérieure . During the test, he had to fight fatigue and only felt comfortable with physics and mathematics. He passed
910-559: The licencié ès sciences degree. In 1846, he was appointed professor of physics at the Collège de Tournon (now called Lycée Gabriel-Faure ) in Ardèche . But the chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard wanted him back at the École Normale Supérieure as a graduate laboratory assistant ( agrégé préparateur ). He joined Balard and simultaneously started his research in crystallography and in 1847, he submitted his two theses, one in chemistry and
980-512: The Pasteur effect . Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C. This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them. Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on 20 April 1862. Pasteur patented
1050-525: The Research Defence Society . He authored The Case Against Anti-Vivisection in 1904 and was the editor of For and Against Experiments on Animals , 1912. Paget was heavily criticized by anti-vivisectionists. In 1962, Archibald Hill noted that "Stephen Paget's death indeed was claimed by anti-vivisectionists as a direct consequence of their prayers." In 1909, Paget authored a book, The Faith and Works of Christian Science , which exposed
1120-416: The seed and soil theory of metastasis , though in his paper "The Distribution Of Secondary Growths In Cancer Of The Breast" he states "…the chief advocate of this theory of the relation between the embolus and the tissues which receive it is Fuchs…". Ernst Fuchs (1851–1930) an Austrian ophthalmologist, physician and researcher however, does not refer to the phenomenon as "seed and soil", but defines it as
1190-413: The 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Spallanzani's experiments in 1765 suggested that air contaminated broths with bacteria. In the 1860s, Pasteur repeated Spallanzani's experiments, but Pouchet reported a different result using a different broth. Pasteur performed several experiments to disprove spontaneous generation. He placed boiled liquid in a flask and let hot air enter the flask. Then he closed
1260-619: The Collège d'Arbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to enroll in a boarding school , but became homesick and returned in November. In 1839, he entered the Collège Royal at Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree science course with special mathematics. He failed his first examination in 1841. He managed to pass
1330-520: The Cévennes. In 1878, at the Congrès international séricicole , Pasteur admitted that "if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages". He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice. In 1884, Balbiani , who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied
1400-603: The Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg , where he met and courted Marie Laurent , daughter of the university's rector in 1849. They were married on 29 May 1849, and together had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid . Pasteur was appointed professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg in 1848, and became
1470-615: The Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation ). Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862. He concluded that: Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment. There is no known circumstance in which it can be confirmed that microscopic beings came into the world without germs, without parents similar to themselves. In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Dumas , chemist, senator and former Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, asked Pasteur to study
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#17327810376921540-570: The French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint , a veterinary surgeon , who was not a member of the academy. Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10 minutes. He tested his vaccine on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation. It was not a great success. Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim "overturns all
1610-431: The French Academy of Sciences on 13 June concludes: [By] looking at everything from the scientific point of view, the development of a vaccination against anthrax constitutes significant progress beyond the first vaccine developed by Jenner, since the latter had never been obtained experimentally. Pasteur did not directly disclose how he prepared the vaccines used at Pouilly-le-Fort. Although his report indicated it as
1680-506: The Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine. Pasteur signed an agreement accepting the challenge on 28 April. Pasteur's assistants, Roux and Chamberland, who were assigned the task of conducting the trial, were concerned about the unreliability of the attenuated vaccine, and therefore Chamberland secretly prepared an alternative vaccine using chemical inactivation. Without divulging their method of preparing
1750-400: The academy awarded him the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs in 1862. Pasteur is also regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory of diseases , which was a minor medical concept at the time. His many experiments showed that diseases could be prevented by killing or stopping germs, thereby directly supporting the germ theory and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to
1820-605: The bacteria samples (later called Pasteurella multocida after him) from Henry Toussaint . Being unnable to conduct the experiments himself due to a stroke in 1868, Pasteur relied heavily on his assistants Emile Roux and Charles Chamberland. The work with chicken cholera was initiated in 1877, and by the next year, Roux was able to maintain a stable culture using broths. As documented later by Pasteur in his notebook in March of 1880, in October of 1879, being delayed in returning to
1890-407: The bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen. He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine. Pasteur introduced the term "attenuation" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying: We can diminish the microbe's virulence by changing the mode of culturing. This
1960-519: The chair of chemistry in 1852. In February 1854, so that he would have time to carry out work that could earn him the title of correspondent of the Institute, he got three months' paid leave with the help of a medical certificate of convenience. He extended the leave until 1 August, the date of the start of the exams. "I tell the Minister that I will go and do the examinations so as not to increase
2030-532: The chair of organic chemistry at the Sorbonne, but he later gave up the position because of poor health. In 1867, the École Normale's laboratory of physiological chemistry was created at Pasteur's request, and he was the laboratory's director from 1867 to 1888. In Paris, he established the Pasteur Institute in 1887, in which he was its director for the rest of his life. In Pasteur's early work as
2100-701: The co-signing of a petition in support of the use of animals in research called Declaration on Animals in Medical Research . The declaration was signed in 1990, and a modified version in 2005. Over 700 scientists, of whom 500 were British, signed the declaration in the first month, including three Nobel laureates , 190 Fellows of the Royal Society and the Medical Royal Colleges and over 250 academic professors. Stephen Paget Stephen Paget (17 July 1855 – 8 May 1926)
2170-400: The corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction. This method of sorting "seeds" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive. By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in
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2240-410: The day of Pasteur's death. That is a day which all physicians and surgeons -- and not they alone -- ought to mark on their calendars; and it falls this year with special significance to us, now that his country and ours are fighting side by side to bring back the world's peace." After his retirement from medical practice in 1910, Paget devoted much time to justifying vivisection . He was secretary of
2310-538: The diseases of wine, and he published Études sur la Bière in 1876, concerning the diseases of beer. In the early 19th century, Agostino Bassi had shown that muscardine was caused by a fungus that infected silkworms. Since 1853, two diseases called pébrine and flacherie had been infecting great numbers of silkworms in southern France, and by 1865 they were causing huge losses to farmers. In 1865, Pasteur went to Alès and worked for five years until 1870. Silkworms with pébrine were covered in corpuscles. In
2380-406: The embarrassment of the service. It is also so as not to leave to another a sum of 6 or 700 francs". In this same year 1854, he was named dean of the new faculty of sciences at University of Lille , where he began his studies on fermentation. It was on this occasion that Pasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: " dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés " ("In
2450-424: The fallacies, inconsistencies, and dangers of Christian Science . Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur ForMemRS ( / ˈ l uː i p æ ˈ s t ɜːr / , French: [lwi pastœʁ] ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist , pharmacist , and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination , microbial fermentation , and pasteurization ,
2520-539: The field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind"). In 1857, he moved to Paris as the director of scientific studies at the École Normale Supérieure where he took control from 1858 to 1867 and introduced a series of reforms to improve the standard of scientific work. The examinations became more rigid, which led to better results, greater competition, and increased prestige. Many of his decrees, however, were rigid and authoritarian, leading to two serious student revolts. During "the bean revolt" he decreed that
2590-477: The first explanation of isomerism . Some historians consider Pasteur's work in this area to be his "most profound and most original contributions to science", and his "greatest scientific discovery." Pasteur was motivated to investigate fermentation while working at Lille. In 1856 a local wine manufacturer, M. Bigot, whose son was one of Pasteur's students, sought for his advice on the problems of making beetroot alcohol and souring. Pasteur began his research in
2660-585: The first set of tests, but because his ranking was low, Pasteur decided not to continue and try again next year. He went back to the Parisian boarding school to prepare for the test. He also attended classes at the Lycée Saint-Louis and lectures of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at the Sorbonne . In 1843, he passed the test with a high ranking and entered the École Normale Supérieure . In 1845 he received
2730-399: The first three years, Pasteur thought that the corpuscles were a symptom of the disease. In 1870, he concluded that the corpuscles were the cause of pébrine (it is now known that the cause is a microsporidian ). Pasteur also showed that the disease was hereditary. Pasteur developed a system to prevent pébrine: after the female moths laid their eggs, the moths were turned into a pulp. The pulp
2800-407: The flask, and no organisms grew in it. In another experiment, when he opened flasks containing boiled liquid, dust entered the flasks, causing organisms to grow in some of them. The number of flasks in which organisms grew was lower at higher altitudes, showing that air at high altitudes contained less dust and fewer organisms. Pasteur also used swan neck flasks containing a fermentable liquid. Air
2870-611: The founders of modern bacteriology and has been honored as the "father of bacteriology" and the "father of microbiology " (together with Robert Koch ; the latter epithet also attributed to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ). Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation . Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences , his experiment demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks, nothing ever developed; conversely, in sterilized but open flasks, microorganisms could grow. For this experiment,
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2940-436: The general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals and racemization . Early in his career, his investigation of sodium ammonium tartrate initiated the field of optical isomerism . This work had
3010-578: The ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc." Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid (phenol) to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880. Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow. He thought oxidizing bacteria when sitting in culture broth for prolonged periods made them less virulent. However, Pasteur's laboratory found that anthrax bacillus
3080-446: The laboratory due to his daughter’s wedding and ill health, he instructed Roux to start a new chicken cholera culture using bacteria from a culture that had sat since July. The two chickens inoculated with this new culture showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely. After further incubation of the culture for an additional 8 days, Roux again inoculated
3150-399: The last of which was named after him. His research in chemistry led to remarkable breakthroughs in the understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases , which laid down the foundations of hygiene, public health and much of modern medicine. Pasteur's works are credited with saving millions of lives through the developments of vaccines for rabies and anthrax . He is regarded as one of
3220-421: The left-handed one was levorotatory. Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light. The (2 R ,3 R )- and (2 S ,3 S )- tartrates were isometric, non-superposable mirror images of each other. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated molecular chirality , and also
3290-486: The most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. Pasteur gave a series of five presentations of his findings before the French Academy of Sciences in 1881, which were published in 1882 as Mémoire Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère: Examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées ( Account of Organized Corpuscles Existing in the Atmosphere: Examining
3360-520: The new word pébrine , Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine. It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie. He made another mistake: he began by denying the "parasitic" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp ) considered well established. Even
3430-424: The other in physics: (a) Chemistry Thesis: "Recherches sur la capacité de saturation de l'acide arsénieux. Etudes des arsénites de potasse, de soude et d'ammoniaque."; (b) Physics Thesis: "1. Études des phénomènes relatifs à la polarisation rotatoire des liquides. 2. Application de la polarisation rotatoire des liquides à la solution de diverses questions de chimie." After serving briefly as professor of physics at
3500-404: The presence of over 200 spectators, with Pasteur himself in attendance. The results were as Pasteur had bravely predicted: "I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill." However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers. His report to
3570-452: The process, to fight the "diseases" of wine, in 1865. The method became known as pasteurization , and was soon applied to beer and milk. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. In 1866, Pasteur published Études sur le Vin , about
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#17327810376923640-466: The ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent. Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage. (See fr:Sériciculture in the French Misplaced Pages.) Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera . He received
3710-404: The same two chickens. As was also noted by Pasteur in his notebook in March of 1880, and contrary to some accounts, this time the chickens died. Thus, although the attenuated bacteria did not provide immunity, these experiments provided important clues as to how bacteria could be artificially attenuated in the laboratory. As a result, upon Pasteur’s return to the laboratory, the focus of the research
3780-463: The seed…" [the cancer cell], the "observations of the properties of the soil" [the secondary organ] "may also be useful..." In addition to other publications, he also wrote a book about Louis Pasteur titled Pasteur and After Pasteur . Pasteur's life is discussed from his early life through his accomplishments. Paget wrote the book in memoriam of Pasteur's life, and in the preface he states, "It has been arranged to publish this manual on September 28th,
3850-459: The skin of grapes was the natural source of yeasts, and that sterilized grapes and grape juice never fermented. He drew grape juice from under the skin with sterilized needles, and also covered grapes with sterilized cloth. Both experiments could not produce wine in sterilized containers. His findings and ideas were against the prevailing notion of spontaneous generation . He received a particularly stern criticism from Félix Archimède Pouchet , who
3920-476: The topic by repeating and confirming works of Theodor Schwann , who demonstrated a decade earlier that yeast were alive. According to his son-in-law, René Vallery-Radot, in August 1857 Pasteur sent a paper about lactic acid fermentation to the Société des Sciences de Lille, but the paper was read three months later. A memoire was subsequently published on 30 November 1857. In the memoir, he developed his ideas stating that: "I intend to establish that, just as there
3990-420: The vaccine to anyone but Pasteur, Roux and Chamberland performed the public experiment on May at Pouilly-le-Fort. 58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated. On 31 May, Roux and Chamberland next injected the animals with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus. The official result was observed and analyzed on 2 June in
4060-412: Was allowed to enter the flask via a long curving tube that made dust particles stick to it. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were tilted, making the liquid touch the contaminated walls of the neck. This showed that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, on dust, rather than spontaneously generating within the liquid or from the action of pure air. These were some of
4130-479: Was an English surgeon and pro- vivisection campaigner. On the basis of the works of Fuchs (see below), he proposed the "seed and soil" theory of metastasis, which claims the distribution of cancers are not coincidental. He was the son of the distinguished surgeon and pathologist Sir James Paget . Paget was born on 17 July 1855 at Cavendish Square , London. He was the fifth child and fourth son of surgeon and pathologist Sir James Paget (1814–1899). Paget
4200-613: Was born on 27 December 1822, in Dole, Jura , France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner . He was the third child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827. Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was dyslexic and dysgraphic . He was an average student in his early years, and not particularly academic, as his interests were fishing and sketching . He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends and neighbors. Pasteur attended secondary school at
4270-456: Was caused by decomposition. Pasteur demonstrated that this theory was incorrect, and that yeast was responsible for fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar. He also demonstrated that, when a different microorganism contaminated the wine, lactic acid was produced, making the wine sour. In 1861, Pasteur observed that less sugar fermented per part of yeast when the yeast was exposed to air. The lower rate of fermentation aerobically became known as
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#17327810376924340-477: Was directed at creating a vaccine through attenuation. In February of 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as " Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)" and published it in the academy's journal ( Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences ). He attributed that
4410-644: Was director of the Rouen Museum of Natural History . To settle the debate between the eminent scientists, the French Academy of Sciences offered the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs to whoever could experimentally demonstrate for or against the doctrine. Pouchet stated that air everywhere could cause spontaneous generation of living organisms in liquids. In the late 1850s, he performed experiments and claimed that they were evidence of spontaneous generation. Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani had provided some evidence against spontaneous generation in
4480-674: Was educated at Shrewsbury School . He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford in 1874, graduating B.A. in 1878 ( M.A. 1886). He was a student at St Bartholomew's Hospital and obtained the F.R.C.S. in 1885. He was elected assistant surgeon to the Metropolitan Hospital and was surgeon at West London Hospital . He was surgeon to the Throat and Ear Department at Middlesex Hospital . Paget died in Limpsfield on 8 May 1926. Paget has long been credited with proposing
4550-519: Was examined with a microscope, and if corpuscles were observed, the eggs were destroyed. Pasteur concluded that bacteria caused flacherie. The primary cause is currently thought to be viruses. The spread of flacherie could be accidental or hereditary. Hygiene could be used to prevent accidental flacherie. Moths whose digestive cavities did not contain the microorganisms causing flacherie were used to lay eggs, preventing hereditary flacherie. Following his fermentation experiments, Pasteur demonstrated that
4620-400: Was funded by its members, including medical scientists, doctors, veterinarians, pharmaceutical companies, research institutes, universities, and charities that support medical research. Its last executive director was Dr. Simon Festing , who became CEO of Understanding Animal Research. One campaign to demonstrate the support for animal research within the scientific and medical community was
4690-467: Was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus. In early 1881, his laboratory discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February. On 21 March, despite inconsistent results, he announced successful vaccination of sheep. To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that
4760-421: Was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces. Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed. In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory , and
4830-402: Was to disseminate information about, and to defend the use of, research involving animals , including animal testing . It represented the interests of 5,000 researchers and institutions. Its sources of funding changed over the hundred years that the society was active, and included individuals, government the pharmaceutical industry and universities. The organisation's literature stated that it
4900-417: Was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field. Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface. He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct. He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields. Pasteur's interest in creating a vaccine for anthrax was greatly stimulated when on 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before
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