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60-541: River God follows the fate of the Egyptian Kingdom through the eyes of Taita, a multi-talented and highly skilled eunuch slave. Taita is owned by Lord Intef and primarily looks after his daughter, Lostris, but also plays a large role in the day-to-day running of Lord Intef's estate. The Pharaoh of Egypt is without a male heir, and Taita inadvertently causes Pharaoh to take an interest in Lostris. Lostris meanwhile

120-408: A "porch of drunkenness" built onto the temple by the pharaoh Hatshepsut , during the height of her twenty-year reign. In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt). In the myth, Sekhmet's blood-lust was not quelled at the end of

180-425: A diameter of over 3 metres (9.8 ft). The architraves , on top of these columns, are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers . This would be a time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone and that

240-548: A freak flooding, finds the father of Masara, and strikes a deal with him to rescue Masara. With the help of Tanus, Memnon, and the Egyptian army, Arkoun is defeated. Tanus is mortally wounded during the battle and dies. Masara and Memnon fall in love and become married, with a wedding gift of several thousand horses which further boost the Egyptian army. Led by their new Pharaoh Tamose (formerly Prince Memnon), they return to Egypt. With their new-found weaponry and tactics, they defeat

300-404: A large number of kings with short reigns and only a few attestations. The true chronology of this dynasty is difficult to determine as there are few monuments dating from the period. Many of the kings' names are only known from odd fragmentary inscriptions or from scarabs . The names and order in the table are based on Dodson and Hilton and Ryholt. Following these kings, the remaining rulers of

360-478: A number of scientists of the Napoleon expedition, including Vivant Denon , during 1798–1799. Claude-Étienne Savary describes the complex in rather great detail in his work of 1785; especially in light of the fact that it is a fictional account of a pretend journey to Upper Egypt, composed out of information from other travellers. Savary did visit Lower Egypt in 1777–78, and published a work about that too. This

420-602: A significant recorded reign. Ryholt (1997:190) argues that the 13th Dynasty lasted from 1803-1649 BC, lasting some 154 years. According to Ryholt, the 13th Dynasty had some continuity with the preceding 12th Dynasty. With the first pharaoh, Sobekhotep I , being the son of a certain Amenemhat, Ryholt proposes Amenemhat IV as a possible father. This is unlikely as Amenemhat IV was succeeded by his sister Sobekneferu and not directly by Sobekhotep I, suggesting that Amenemhat IV didn't have any children. Ryholt also proposes that

480-636: A vast mix of temples , pylons , chapels, and other buildings near Luxor , Egypt. Construction at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I (reigned 1971–1926 BC) in the Middle Kingdom ( c.  2000–1700 BC ) and continued into the Ptolemaic Kingdom (305–30 BC), although most of the extant buildings date from the New Kingdom . The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut ("The Most Selected of Places") and

540-410: A village name, and name of the complex, is first attested in 1668, when two capuchin missionary brothers, Protais and Charles François d'Orléans, travelled though the area. Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot ( Relations de divers voyages curieux , 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb ( The Present State of Egypt , 1678). The first drawing of Karnak

600-650: Is "hidden" or the "hidden god". Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty , when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt. Almost every pharaoh of that dynasty added something to the temple site. Thutmose I erected an enclosure wall connecting the Fourth and Fifth pylons, which comprise the earliest part of the temple still standing in situ . Hatshepsut had monuments constructed and also restored

660-474: Is convinced to allow Tanus to redeem himself by attempting to eliminate all the bandits from Egypt within two years. Since his sentence is revealed on the last day of the festival of Osiris, he is to return on that day of the next festival with his task complete or face death by strangulation. Tanus, with the help of Taita, hunts down and captures the leaders of the Shrike bandits. On presenting them to Pharaoh, it

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720-527: Is found in Paul Lucas ' travel account of 1704, ( Voyage du Sieur Paul Lucas au Levant ). It is rather inaccurate, and can be quite confusing to modern eyes. Lucas travelled in Egypt during 1699–1703. The drawing shows a mixture of the Precinct of Amun-Re and the Precinct of Montu, based on a complex confined by the three huge Ptolemaic gateways of Ptolemy III Euergetes / Ptolemy IV Philopator , and

780-446: Is in love with the soldier Tanus, who unbeknownst to her is hated by her father. Eventually Pharaoh marries Lostris and her father, Lord Intef, reluctantly gives Taita to her as a wedding gift. Meanwhile, Tanus has angered Pharaoh by speaking bluntly about the troubles Egypt is in — most prominently the growing bandit threat which terrorizes all who travel outside of the major cities. Pharaoh condemns him to death for his actions, but

840-691: Is not possible to relate characters and events in the novel to specific characters and events in history. The novel is correct in crediting the Hyksos with introducing horses to Egypt. Another technology the novel credits the invaders with is the more advanced "Recurved Bow." This is also most likely correct. "Action is the name of Wilbur Smith's game, and he is a master."—the Washington Post Book World Temple of Karnak The Karnak Temple Complex , commonly known as Karnak ( / ˈ k ɑːr . n æ k / ), comprises

900-405: Is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi , reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. The stele is of unknown provenance. The chronological position of a number of attested rulers could not be conclusively determined due to a lack of evidence: Ryholt posits a ruler named "Sobkhotep I Sekhemre Khutawy" as

960-431: Is revealed that their leader is Lord Intef. Tanus has his death sentence lifted, but Intef manages to escape before he can be punished for his crimes. After the sentence is announced a storm sweeps through allowing Lostris and Tanus time to be secretly alone together. During this time Lostris conceives Tanus' first born, and before the secret can be discovered Taita arranges for her to resume her wifely duties to Pharaoh. When

1020-520: Is the largest of the precincts of the temple complex, and is dedicated to Amun-Re , the chief deity of the Theban Triad . There are several colossal statues, including the figure of Pinedjem I which is 10.5 metres (34 ft) tall. The sandstone for this temple, including all of the columns, was transported from Gebel Silsila 100 miles (161 km) south on the Nile river. It also has one of

1080-942: The Great Hypostyle Hall also may have begun during the Eighteenth Dynasty (although most new building was undertaken under Seti I and Ramesses II in the Nineteenth). Merneptah , also of the Nineteenth Dynasty, commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court , the start of the processional route (also known as the Avenue of Sphinxes ) to the Luxor Temple . The last major change to

1140-610: The 13th Dynasty are only attested by finds from Upper Egypt. This may indicate the abandonment of the old capital Itjtawy in favor of Thebes . Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers. For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. This analysis

1200-406: The 13th dynasty did not control all of Egypt when Sobekhotep IV acceded to power, and that there was a significant overlap between the 13th and 15th dynasties since Sobekhotep IV was only a mid-13th dynasty ruler; although one of its most powerful kings. Therefore, Manetho's statement that the Hyksos 15th dynasty violently replaced the 13th dynasty could be a piece of later Egyptian propaganda. Rather,

1260-492: The 13th dynasty's authority must have been collapsing throughout Egypt in its final decades and the Hyksos state in the Delta region simply took over Memphis and ended the 13th dynasty's kingdom. However, this analysis and the conclusions drawn from it are rejected by Egyptologist Robert Porter, who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV (a gap of c. 100 years exists between the two in conventional chronologies) and that

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1320-550: The 15th and 16th centuries who visited only Lower Egypt and published their travel accounts, such as Joos van Ghistele and André Thévet , put Thebes in or close to Memphis . The first European description of the Karnak temple complex was by unknown Venetian in 1589 and is housed in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze , although his account gives no name for the complex. Karnak ("Carnac") as

1380-554: The 17th dynasty, when its remains were sealed up by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 into the remains of the former 12th dynasty building which was also used in the 13th dynasty led to the discovery of a large adjoining hall which proved to contain 41 sealings showing the cartouche of the Hyksos ruler Khyan together with 9 sealings naming the 13th dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. The preserved contexts of these seals shows that Sobekhotep IV and Khyan were most likely contemporaries of one another. This could mean that

1440-438: The Egyptian nobility (including Lostris, Tanus, and Taita) to flee Egypt by heading up the Nile with the remaining army. During their exile Lostris gives birth to two more of Tanus' children, both daughters, but as their relationship has been a secret Taita creates a cover story where the ghost of Pharaoh sires the child. During their period in exile, they regain their technical superiority — Taita replicates and improves both

1500-715: The Great recognized the Christian religion, and in 356 Constantius II ordered the closing of pagan temples throughout the Roman empire, into which Egypt had been annexed in 30 BC. Karnak was by this time mostly abandoned, and Christian churches were founded among the ruins, the most famous example of this is the reuse of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III 's central hall, where painted decorations of saints and Coptic inscriptions can still be seen. Thebes' exact placement

1560-520: The Hyksos invaders and regain the upper kingdom of Egypt from Elephantine to Thebes. Smith described his inspiration for writing the book: I was sitting in the Temple of Karnak on the Nile, as the sun was going down, and I was all alone, and the Great Hypostyle Hall was full of shadows and ghosts of the past, and suddenly I heard this little voice saying "my name is Taita, write my story"… and if you believe that you'll believe anything! He has also said

1620-488: The Johns Hopkins University team, led by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple. It may be the oldest portion of the site. In 2006, Bryan presented her findings of a festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol. Participation in the festival included the priestesses and

1680-511: The Karnak complex is largely the history of Thebes and its changing role in the culture. Religious centers varied by region, and when a new capital of the unified culture was established, the religious centers in that area gained prominence. The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to

1740-469: The Nile . However, the dynasty marked a period of decline and instability, with Dynasty XIV rising concurrently and the Hyksos Dynasty XV taking control shortly after. Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is usually considered Dynasty XIII's first pharaoh, and Merneferre Ay , while not the final pharaoh, was the last to occupy the Middle Kingdom capital of Itjtawy , and the last of the dynasty with

1800-684: The Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty . Ancient Greek and Roman writers wrote about a range of monuments in Upper Egypt and Nubia , including Karnak, Luxor temple, the Colossi of Memnon , Esna , Edfu , Kom Ombo , Philae , and others. In 323 AD, Roman emperor Constantine

1860-457: The Precinct of Amun-Re, and the Luxor Temple . The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, but not yet restored. The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut , although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have been carried away for use in other buildings. The key difference between Karnak and most of

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1920-418: The battle and led to her destroying almost all of humanity, so Ra had tricked her by turning the Nile as red as blood (the Nile turns red every year when filled with silt during inundation) so that Sekhmet would drink it. The trick, however, was that the red liquid was not blood, but beer mixed with pomegranate juice so that it resembled blood, making her so drunk that she gave up slaughter and became an aspect of

1980-410: The buildings of the ancient Egyptians were used by later cultures for their own religious purposes, such as Coptic churches. The Great Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re has an area of 50,000 sq ft (5,000 m ) with 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows. One hundred and twenty-two of these columns are 10 metres (33 ft) tall, and the other 12 are 21 metres (69 ft) tall with

2040-468: The chariots and bows he has seen used to such great effect on the battlefield. While searching for a suitable burying place for Pharaoh's body, Taita is taken captive by one of the Ethiopian chieftains of the area — the brutal Arkoun. While in captivity, Taita becomes close friends with Masara, a fellow captive and the daughter of one of the rival chieftains. Taita eventually escapes captivity due to

2100-467: The child is born he is named Memnon and claimed by the Pharaoh as his own, and his true paternity is known only to Lostris, Taita, and Tanus. A new threat to the kingdom emerges — the warlike Hyksos. Equipped with the horse and chariot, as well as a superior recurved bow, their technological superiority gives them power far greater than the Egyptian army's. The Pharaoh is killed, forcing a majority of

2160-547: The conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty , c. 1650 BC. In later texts, this dynasty is usually described as an era of chaos and disorder. However, the period may have been more peaceful than was once thought since the central government in Itj-tawy near the Faiyum was sustained during most of the dynasty and the country remained relatively stable. The period was undoubtedly characterized by decline, with

2220-481: The demarcation between the two dynasties reflects the rise of the independent 14th Dynasty in the eastern Delta, an event which, he proposes, occurred during Sobekneferu 's reign. As direct heirs to the kings of the 12th Dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th Dynasty reigned from Memphis over Middle and Upper Egypt, all the way to the second cataract to the south. The power of the 13th Dynasty waned progressively over its 150 years of existence and it finally came to an end with

2280-467: The earliest worshipped to those worshipped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture. Although destroyed, it also contained an early temple built by Amenhotep IV ( Akhenaten ), the pharaoh who later would celebrate a nearly monotheistic religion he established that prompted him to move his court and religious center away from Thebes. It also contains evidence of adaptations, where

2340-519: The early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu . Early building was destroyed by invaders. The earliest known artifact found in the area of the temple is a small, eight-sided column from the Eleventh Dynasty, which mentions Amun-Re. Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes. He was identified with the ram and the goose. The Egyptian meaning of Amun

2400-458: The east called the Hyksos who seized Egypt "without striking a blow; and having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities ruthlessly, razed to the ground the temples of gods..." Their regime, called Dynasty XV , was claimed to have replaced Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of the country. However, recent archaeological finds at Edfu could indicate that the Hyksos 15th dynasty

2460-523: The first king of this dynasty. This is now the dominant hypothesis in Egyptology and Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy is referred to as Sobekhotep I in this article. Ryholt thus credits Sekhemre Khutawy Sobkhotep I with a reign of 3 to 4 years c. 1800 BC and proposes that Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned c. 20 years later in 1780 BC. Dodson and Hilton similarly believe that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep predated Khaankhre Sobekhotep. After allowing discipline at

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2520-458: The gentle Hathor . The complex interweaving of deities occurred over the thousands of years of the culture. This portion of the site is dedicated to the son of Mut and Amun-Re, Montu , a war-god. It is located to the north of the Amun-Re complex and is much smaller in size. It is not open to the public. The temple that Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) constructed on the site was located east of

2580-596: The idea came from the 1988 discovery of the tomb of a previously unrecorded Egyptian queen, who died about 1780BC. The academic who led the dig on the West Bank of the Nile invited Smith to assist in the transcription of precious scrolls found in a hidden niche. The novel contains a two-page afterword in which Smith claims the novel is based on a set of scrolls discovered in an Egyptian tomb which dates back to approximately 1780 BCE. The scrolls were said to have been discovered by an Egyptologist, Dr. Duraid al-Simma, who passed

2640-457: The largest is currently open to the public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Re only, because this is the only part most visitors see. The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut , the Precinct of Montu , and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV , are closed to the public. There also are a few smaller temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut,

2700-610: The largest obelisks, weighing 328 tons and standing 29 metres (95 ft) tall. Located to the south of the newer Amun-Re complex, this precinct was dedicated to the mother goddess , Mut , who became identified as the wife of Amun-Re in the Eighteenth Dynasty Theban Triad. It has several smaller temples associated with it and has its own sacred lake , constructed in a crescent shape. This temple has been ravaged, many portions having been used in other structures. Following excavation and restoration works by

2760-568: The main complex, outside the walls of the Amun-Re precinct. It was destroyed immediately after the death of its builder, who had attempted to overcome the powerful priesthood who had gained control over Egypt before his reign. It was so thoroughly demolished that its full extent and layout is unknown. The priesthood of that temple regained their powerful position as soon as Akhenaten died, and were instrumental in destroying many records of his existence. Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XIII )

2820-487: The main place of worship of the 18th Dynastic Theban Triad , with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes , and in 1979 it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List along with the rest of the city. Karnak gets its name from the nearby, and partly surrounded, modern village of El-Karnak, 2.5 kilometres (1.6 miles) north of Luxor. The original name of the temple

2880-440: The massive 113 m long, 43 m high and 15 m thick, First Pylon of the Precinct of Amun-Re. Karnak was visited and described in succession by Claude Sicard and his travel companion Pierre Laurent Pincia (1718 and 1720–21), Granger (1731), Frederick Louis Norden (1737–38), Richard Pococke (1738), James Bruce (1769), Charles-Nicolas-Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt (1777), William George Browne (1792–93), and finally by

2940-409: The original Precinct of Mut , that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. She had twin obelisks , at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands, as the second-tallest ancient obelisk still standing on Earth ; the other has toppled and is broken. Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge ,

3000-463: The other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times. Approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features are vast. The deities represented range from some of

3060-556: The population. Historical records of tens of thousands attending the festival exist. These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast , as some of her aspects. First, Mut became Mut- Wadjet -Bast, then Mut-Sekhmet-Bast (Wadjet having merged into Bast), then Mut also assimilated Menhit , another lioness goddess, and her adopted son's wife, becoming Mut-Sekhmet-Bast-Menhit, and finally becoming Mut- Nekhbet . Temple excavations at Luxor discovered

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3120-495: The southern forts to deteriorate, the government eventually withdrew its garrisons and, not long afterward, the forts were reoccupied by the rising Nubian state of Kush . In the north, Lower Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos , a Semitic people from across the Sinai. An independent line of kings created Dynasty XIV that arose in the western Delta during later Dynasty XIII. According to Manetho , into this unstable mix came invaders from

3180-428: The stones were then towed up the ramps. If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material. The top of the ramps presumably would have employed either wooden tracks or cobblestones for towing the megaliths. There is an unfinished pillar in an out-of-the-way location that indicates how it would have been finished. Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it

3240-555: The translations onto Smith to transcribe into a novel. This is a false claim, as Smith later reveals in the afterword of the sequel, The Seventh Scroll . The central conflict of the novel is the Hyksos invasion, which took place approximately 100 years after the claimed date of 1780. 1780 was approximately the beginning of the Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt : The Hyksos have been assigned to the Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt . Thus, it

3300-552: Was Ipet-isut , meaning "The Most Select of Places". The complex's modern name "Karnak" comes from the nearby village of el-Karnak, which means "fortified village". The complex is a vast open site and includes the Karnak Open Air Museum . It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza pyramid complex near Cairo receives more visits. It consists of four main parts, of which only

3360-547: Was a series of rulers from approximately 1803 BC until approximately 1649 BC, i.e. for 154 years. It is often classified as the final dynasty of the Middle Kingdom (which includes Dynasties XI , XII and XIV ), but some historians instead group it in the Second Intermediate Period (with Dynasties XIV through XVII ). Dynasty XIII initially ruled from the Nile Delta to the second cataract of

3420-514: Was already in existence at least by the mid-13th dynasty reign of king Sobekhotep IV . In a recently published paper in Egypt and the Levant , Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard and N. Ayers discuss the discovery of an important early 12th dynasty Middle Kingdom administrative building in the eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper Egypt which was in continual use into the early Second Intermediate Period until

3480-528: Was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks. She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction, and thus, a third was constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan , where it still remains. Known as the unfinished obelisk , it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried. Construction of

3540-450: Was not damaged while being placed. Several experiments moving megaliths with ancient technology were made at other locations – some of which are amongst the largest monoliths in the world. The sun god's shrine was built so that it has light focused upon it during the winter solstice . In 2009, UCLA launched a website dedicated to virtual reality digital reconstructions of the Karnak complex and other resources. The history of

3600-505: Was unknown in medieval Europe, though both Herodotus and Strabo give the exact location of Thebes and how long up the Nile one must travel to reach it. Maps of Egypt, based on the 2nd century Claudius Ptolemaeus ' mammoth work Geographia , had been circulating in Europe since the late 14th century, all of them showing Thebes' (Diospolis) location. Despite this, several European authors of

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